Process engineering of liver cells for drug testing applications

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Bioengenharia

Dissecting the molecular interaction between hepatocytes and Plasmodium liver parasites

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Biology

NADH oxidase activity of rat and human liver xanthine oxidoreductase: potential role in superoxide production

J Biol Inorg Chem (2007) 12:777–787 DOI 10.1007/s00775-007-0229-7

Interaction of malaria parasites with host late endocytic and autophagic pathways is essential for Plasmodium liver stage development

RESUMO: A Malária é causada por parasitas do género Plasmodium, sendo a doença parasitária mais fatal para o ser humano. Apesar de, durante o século passado, o desenvolvimento económico e a implementação de diversas medidas de controlo, tenham permitido erradicar a doença em muitos países, a Malária continua a ser um problema de saúde grave, em particular nos países em desenvolvimento. A Malária é transmitida através da picada de uma fêmea de mosquito do género Anopheles. Durante a picada, os esporozoítos são injetados na pele do hospedeiro, seguindo-se a fase hepática e obrigatória do ciclo de vida. No fígado, os esporozoítos infetam os hepatócitos onde se replicam, dentro de um vacúolo parasitário (VP) e de uma forma imunitária silenciosa, em centenas de merozoitos. Estas novas formas do parasita são as responsáveis por infetar os eritrócitos, iniciando a fase sanguínea da doença, onde se os primeiros sintomas se manifestam, tais como a característica febre cíclica. A fase hepática da doença é a menos estudada e compreendida. Mais ainda, as interações entre o VP e os organelos da células hospedeira estão ainda pouco caracterizados. Assim, neste estudo, as interações entre os organelos endocíticos e autofágicos da célula hospedeira e o VP foram dissecados, observando-se que os anfisomas, que são organelos resultantes da intersecção do dois processos de tráfego intracelular, interagem com o parasita. Descobrimos que a autofagia tem também uma importante função imunitária durante a fase hepática inicial, ao passo, que durante o desenvolvimento do parasita, já numa fase mais tardia, o parasita depende da interação com os endossomas tardios e anfisomas para crescer. Vesiculas de BSA, EGF e LC3, foram, também, observadas dentro do VP, sugerindo que os parasitas são capazes de internalizar material endocítico e autofágico do hospedeiro. Mais ainda, mostramos que esta interação depende da cinase PIKfyve, responsável pela conversão do fosfoinositidio-3-fosfato no fosfoinositidio-3,5-bifosfato, uma vez que inibindo esta cinase o parasita não é capaz de crescer normalmente. Finalmente, mostramos que a proteína TRPML1, uma proteína efetora do fosfoinositidio-3,5-bifosfato, e envolvida no processo de fusão das membranas dos organelos endocíticos e autofágicos, também é necessária para o crescimento do parasita. Desta forma, o nosso estudo sugere que a membrana do VP funde com vesiculas endocíticas e autofágicas tardias, de uma forma dependente do fositidio-3,5-bifosfato e do seu effetor TRPML1, permitindo a troca de material com a célula hospedeira. Concluindo, os nossos resultados evidenciam que o processo autofágico que ocorre na célula hospedeira tem um papel duplo durante a fase hepática da malaria. Enquanto numa fase inicial os hepatócitos usam o processo autofágico como forma de defesa contra o parasita, já durante a fase de replicação o VP funde com vesiculas autofágicas e endocíticas de forma a obter os nutrientes necessários ao seu desenvolvimento.--------- ABSTRACT: Malaria, which is caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium, is the most deadly parasitic infection in humans. Although economic development and the implementation of control measures during the last century have erradicated the disease from many areas of the world, it remains a serious human health issue, particularly in developing countries. Malaria is transmitted by female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. During the mosquito blood meal, Plasmodium spp. sporozoites are injected into the skin dermis of the vertebrate host, followed by an obligatory liver stage. Upon entering the liver, Plasmodium parasites infect hepatocytes and silently replicate inside a host cell-derived parasitophorous vacuole (PV) into thousands of merozoites. These new parasite forms can infect red blood cells initiating the the blood stage of the disease which shows the characteristic febrile malaria episodes. The liver stage is the least characterized step of the malaria infection. Moreover, the interactions between the Plasmodium spp. PV and the host cell trafficking pathways are poorly understood. We dissected the interaction between Plasmodium parasites and the host cell endocytic and autophagic pathways and we found that both pathways intersect and interconnect in the close vicinity of the parasite PV, where amphisomes are formed and accumulate. Interestingly, we observed a clearance function for autophagy in hepatocytes infected with Plasmodium berghei parasites at early infection times, whereas during late liver stage development late endosomes and amphisomes are required for parasite growth. Moreover, we found the presence of internalized BSA, EGF and LC3 inside parasite vacuoles, suggesting that the parasites uptake endocytic and autophagic cargo. Furthermore, we showed that the interaction between the PV and host traffic pathways is dependent on the kinase PIKfyve, which converts the phosphoinositide PI(3)P into PI(3,5)P2, since PIKfyve inhibition caused a reduction in parasite growth. Finally, we showed that the PI(3,5)P2 effector protein TRPML1, which is involved in late endocytic and autophagic membrane fusion, is also required for parasite development. Thus, our studies suggest that the parasite parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) is able to fuse with late endocytic and autophagic vesicles in a PI(3,5)P2- and TRPML1-dependent manner, allowing the exchange of material between the host cell and the parasites, necessary for the rapid development of the latter that is seen during the liver stage of infection. In conclusion, we present evidence supporting a specific and essential dual role of host autophagy during the course of Plasmodium liver infection. Whereas in the initial hours of infection the host cell uses autophagy as a cell survival mechanism to fight the infection, during the replicative phase the PV fuses with host autophagic and endocytic vesicles to obtain nutrients required for parasite growth.

Size-Control Regulation during Regeneration

Functional regeneration of organs upon injury is a key process for animals survival. Contrary to humans, some vertebrates are remarkably competent in regenerating after acute organ or appendage lesions. This advantageous skill allows overcoming limitations in repair even in adult stages, when tissues are fully developed, via a process of epimorphic regeneration. One such organism is the zebrafish, which can regenerate several organs, namely its heart, retina, spinal cord and fins. (...)

Proteomics based approach to understand tissue regeneration

Dissertation presented to obtain the PhD degree in Biochemistry

the liver endoplasmic reticulum in malaria liver infection

Malaria, a disease caused by Plasmodium, represents a major health problem with a still disconcertingly high mortality rate (655 000 malaria deaths were estimated by the World Health Organization in 2012), mainly in Africa [1]. After a bite by an infected Anopheles mosquito occurs, Plasmodium sporozoites reach their target organ, the liver, within minutes. After traversing several hepatocytes, the parasite invades a final one and establishes a parasitophorous vacuole, where it replicates exponentially generating thousands of infective merozoites, the red blood cell infectious forms that are released in the blood stream. The liver stage is the first obligatory phase of malaria infection and, although no symptoms are associated with it, it is absolutely crucial to the establishment of a successful infection.(...)

Unraveling intrinsic mechanisms of Nerve Regeneration

Unlike injury to the peripheral nervous system (PNS), where injured neurons can trigger a regenerative program that leads to axonal elongation and in some cases proper reinnervation, after injury to the central nervous system (CNS) neurons fail to produce the same response. The regenerative program includes the activation of several injury signals that will lead to the expression of genes associated with axonal regeneration. As a consequence, the spawned somatic response will ensure the supply of molecular components required for axonal elongation. The capacity of some neurons to trigger a regenerative response has led to investigate the mechanisms underlying neuronal regeneration. Thus, non-regenerative models (like injury to the CNS) and regenerative models (such as injury to the PNS) were used to understand the differences underlying those two responses to injury. To do so, the regenerative properties of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons were addressed. This particular type of neurons possesses two branches, a central axon, that has a limited capacity to regenerate; and a peripheral axon, where regeneration can occur over long distances. In the first paradigm used to understand the neuronal regeneration mechanisms, we evaluated the activation of injury signals in a non-regenerative model. Injury signals include the positive injury signals, which are described as being enhancers of axonal regeneration by activating several transcription factors. The currently known positive injury signals are ERK, JNK and STAT3. To evaluate whether the lack of regeneration following injury to the central branch of DRG neurons was due to inactivation of these signals, activation of the transcription factors pELK-1, p-c-jun (downstream targets of ERK and JNK, respectively) and pSTAT3 were examined. Results have shown no impairment in the activation of these signals. As a consequence, we further proceed with evaluation of other candidates that could participate in axonal regeneration failure. By comparing the protein profiles that were triggered following either injury to the central branch of DRG neurons or injury to their peripheral branch, we were able to identify high levels of GSK3-β, ROCKII and HSP-40 after injury to the central branch of DRG neurons. While in vitro knockdown of HSP-40 in DRG neurons showed to be toxic for the cells, evaluation of pCRMP2 (a GSK3-β downstream target) and pMLC (a ROCKII downstream target), which are known to impair axonal regeneration, revealed high levels of both proteins following injury to the central branch when comparing with injury to their peripheral one. Altogether, these results suggest that activation of positive injury signals is not sufficient to elicit axonal regeneration; HSP-40 is likely to participate in the cell survival program; whereas GSK3-β and ROCKII activity may condition the regenerative capacity following injury to the nervous system.(...)

Host genetic factors in mouse malaria liver stage infection

Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia

The role of Hedgehog signaling during zebrafish larvae fin fold regeneration

Several studies have demonstrated that although the structure of the adult and larval zebrafish caudal fin is different, there are similarities at the cellular and molecular level that turn larval zebrafish fin fold a useful model to study the basic principles of regeneration. In this process, while the essential role for Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is well established in the adult zebrafish caudal fin system, its involvement in juvenile tissue regeneration is still unknown. The aim of this Master thesis was therefore to evaluate the contribution of the Hh signaling pathway to the larval zebrafish fin fold regeneration process. Accordingly, we analyzed the expression of several Hh signaling components through in situ hybridization. Here, we showed that several of these genes are effectively expressed in the larval regenerating fin tissue, suggesting a role for Hh signaling also during larval regeneration. However, divergence in the regulation of few Hh signaling components appears to exist between the adult and larval zebrafish fin regeneration processes. Nevertheless, similarly to adult caudal fin regeneration, when Hh signaling was blocked, by using cyclopamine, the larval fin fold regenerative outgrowth is severely impaired. Since larval zebrafish fin fold is ciliated, and primary cilia are closely related to Hh signaling regulation in vertebrate systems, we further addressed the role of primary cilia during larval fin fold regeneration process. To this end, we used the zebrafish iguana mutant, in which primary cilia are not formed, to study the modulation of Hh signaling expression during larval fin fold regeneration in the absence of primary cilia. Here, we found that several genes were expressed with a delay, coincident with the delay in the mutant fin fold regeneration observed in previous work. We show that Hh signaling in the fin fold is crucial to promote cell proliferation. When Hh signaling is blocked using cyclopamine there is a strong blockage of cell proliferation and regeneration is also blocked. Surprisingly, in iguana mutants where Hh signaling is impaired but not totally blocked, cell proliferation is not detected but regeneration still occurs. This raises the question about the requirement of cell proliferation in larvae fin fold regeneration. By blocking the cell cycle using aphidicolin we demonstrate that cell proliferation is not necessary for zebrafish larvae fin fold regeneration.