24 resultados para cancer
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RESUMO: Introduo: Uma meta-anlise recente demonstrou que uso adjuvante de cido zoledrnico (AZ) em mulheres ps-menopusicas com cancro da mama precoce (CM) conduz a reduo do risco de morte por CM em 17%. Investigmos o efeito do estado hormonal (pr [PrM] vs ps-menopausa tardia [PoM]) na remodelao ssea e controlo de doena em mulheres com CM e metstases sseas (MO) tratadas com AZ e quimioterapia (QT). Mtodos: Neste estudo de coorte retrospetivo, colhemos variveis clinico-patolgicas e quantificmos o telopptido N-terminal (NTX) urinrio e marcadores tumorais (MT) sricos em mulheres com CM e MO tratadas com QT e AZ. As doentes foram divididas em PrM (<45 anos) e PoM (>60 anos). Endpoints do estudo: variao do NTX, CA15.3 e CEA nos meses 3, 6 e 9, tempo at falncia de QT de primeira-linha e sobrevivncia. Quando apropriado foram usados os testes de Wilcoxon rank-sum, modelo de efeitos lineares mistos, teste log-rank e modelo de Cox. Resultados: Quarenta doentes foram elegveis para anlise (8 PrM e 32 PoM). Depois da introduo de AZ e QT, os nveis de NTX e MT caram no coorte global. O perfil de resposta no diferiu entre grupos no ms 3 ou em tempos posteriores (valor-p para interao tempo-estado hormonal no ms 3=0.957). Ademais, o perfil de resposta dos MT tambm no diferiu entre grupos. O tempo mediano at falncia de primeira-linha de QT em PrM e PoM foi de 15.2 e 17.4 meses, respetivamente. No foi identificada diferena significativa entre grupos, quer em anlise univariada quer aps controlo para envolvimento visceral (p=0.399 e 0.469, respetivamente). Igualmente, no houve diferenas em termos de sobrevivncia. Concluses: Neste coorte, no foram identificadas diferenas no controlo de NTX ou MT em funo do estado menopausico. Igualmente, no foi identificada diferena no tempo at falncia de primeira-linha de CT ou sobrevivncia.----------- ABSTRACT: Background: A recent meta-analysis showed that the adjuvant use of zoledronic acid (ZA) in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer (BC) leads to a reduction in the risk of breast cancer death by 17%. We investigated the effect of the hormonal status (pre [PrM] vs late post menopause [PoM]) on bone turnover and disease control among women with BC and bon metastases (BM) treated with ZA and chemotherapy (CT). Methods: In this retrospective cohort study, we collected clinicopathologic variables, urinary Nterminal telopeptide (NTX) and serum tumor marker levels from women with BC and BM treated with CT and ZA. Patients were divided in PrM (<45 years) and PoM (>60 years). Study endpoints were NTX, CA15.3 and CEA variation at 3, 6 and 9 months, and time to first-line CT failure and survival. We performed multilevel mixed-effects linear regression models to assess the variation of repeated measures and cox regression models for time to event outcomes. Results: Forty patients were eligible for analysis (8 PrM and 32 PoM). After introduction of ZA and CT, NTX and tumor markers declined in the overall cohort. Response profile was similar between menopausal groups at month 3 and at later time points (p-value for time-hormonal status interaction at month 3=0.957). Furthermore, tumor markers response profile was also equal between groups. Median time to first-line CT failure in PrM and PoM women was 15.2 and 17.4 months, respectively. No significant difference between groups was found, either using a univariate analysis or after controlling for visceral disease involvement (p=0.399 and 0.469, respectively). Likewise, no differences in survival were found. Conclusions: In this cohort, no differences were found in terms of NTX or tumor markers control according to menopausal status. Similarly, no difference in time to first-line CT failure or survival was found.
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DNA may fold into a diversity of structures and topologies such as duplexes and triplexes. Some specific guanine-rich DNA sequences may even fold into a higher order structures denominated guanine G-quadruplexes (G4). These G-quadruplex forming sequences have shown biological interest since were found in telomeres and in promoter region of oncogenes. Thus, these G4 forming sequences have been explored as therapeutic targets for cancer therapy, since G4 formation was demonstrated to inhibit RNA-polymerase and telomerase activity. However, the G4 structures are transient and are only formed under specific conditions. Hence the main objective of this work is to develop new G4-specific ligands which may potentially find applications in the therapeutic area. Several potential G4-binding ligands were synthesized and characterized. The synthesis of these compounds consisted on a procedure based on van Leusen chemistry and a cross-coupling reaction through C-H activation, affording phenanthroline compounds (Phen-1, 50%; Phen-2, 20%), phenyl (Iso-1, 61%; Iso-2, 21%; Ter-1, 85%; Ter-2, 35%), and quinolyl (Quin-1, 85%; Quin-2, 45%) compounds. Screening assays for selecting the potential G4 compounds were performed by FRET-melting, G4-FID, CD-melting and DSF. Qualitative biophysical studies were performed by fluorescence and CD spectroscopy. Two high-specific G-quadruplex ligands, Phen-1 and Phen-2, were found to effectively bind telomeric and c-myc G4 structures. Phen-1 was found to stabilize parallel telomeric 22AG and c-myc sequence by 4.1 and 4.3 C, respectively. Phen-2 also displayed high affinity towards 22AG (
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RESUMO: O cancro do pulmo (LC), uma das principais causas de mortalidade relacionada com cancro em Portugal, pode levar formao de metstases hematognicas. A adeso das clulas tumorais ao endotlio considerada um dos passos fundamentais envolvidos na metstase. Em clulas sanguneas, esta adeso mediada por ligandos de E-selectina (E-SL), glicoprotenas ou glicolpidos decorados principalmente com sialyl-Lewis x (sLex) e sialyl-Lewis a (sLea). Tem sido descrito a expresso destes antignios em LC, contudo o seu papel funcional em permitir a adeso das clulas de LC ao endotlio ainda pouco compreendido. Foram analisadas amostras emparelhadas normais e tumorais de pacientes com cancro de pulmo de no-pequenas clulas (NSCLC) e trs linhas celulares de LC. Immunoblotting assays com anti-sLex/sLea e molcula quimrica de E-selectina demonstraram que tecidos tumorais de LC sobreexpressam significativamente E-SL e resultados de citometria de fluxo demonstraram uma expresso elevada de E-SL nas linhas celulares. Para compreender o mecanismo da sobreexpresso de E-SL em tecidos tumorais e linhas celulares de LC, foi analisada a expresso de genes envolvidos na biossntese de E-SL, nomeadamente FUT3, FUT4, FUT6, FUT7, ST3GAL3, ST3GAL4, ST3GAL6, 4GALT1, GCNT1 e GALNT3. Observou-se a sobreexpresso das fucosiltransferases FUT3, FUT6 e FUT7 em tecidos tumorais de LC e FUT3 em linhas celulares de LC, sendo que neste ltimo, esta expresso correlacionada com um aumento da adeso das clulas de LC s selectinas endoteliais. Foi observado que uma baixa expresso de FUT4 em tecidos tumorais est associada com estadios menos avanados de NSCLC. Foram analisadas ainda protenas decoradas com sLex/sLea, tendo-se identificado como E-SL o antignio carcinoembrionrio em NSCLC. Em resumo, esta tese contribuiu para uma melhor compreenso das alteraes glicosdicas e molculas que podem influenciar a progresso tumoral do LC, podendo permitir identificar futuramente novos biomarcadores de diagnstico/prognstico e potenciais alvos teraputicos para o NSCLC.--------------------------ABSTRACT: Lung cancer (LC), one of the major causes of mortality related to cancer in Portugal, may lead to hematogenous metastasis. Adhesion of cancer cells to endothelium is considered one of the crucial steps involved in metastasis. In blood cells, this adhesion is initiated by endothelial selectin ligands (E-SL) that are glycoproteins or glycolipids decorated mostly with sialyl-Lewis x (sLex) and sialyl-Lewis a (sLea). While LC has been described as expressing these sialyl Lewis antigens, its functional role in allowing LC adhesion to endothelium is still poorly understood. We analyzed paired tumor and normal tissues samples from non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients and three LC cell lines. Immunoblotting assays with anti-sLex/sLea and E-selectin chimera demonstrated that LC tumor tissues significantly overexpress E-SL and flow cytometry results indicated that E-SL are also abundantly expressed in LC cell lines. To understand the mechanism behind the overexpression of E-SL in LC tissues and cell lines, we analyzed the expression of genes involved in its biosynthesis, namely FUT3, FUT4, FUT6, FUT7, ST3GAL3, ST3GAL4, ST3GAL6, 4GALT1, GCNT1 and GALNT3. It was observed the overexpression of fucosyltransferases FUT3, FUT6 and FUT7 in LC tumor tissues and FUT3 in LC cell lines, being this last one correlated with an increased reactivity of the LC cells to endothelial selectins. It was described that low expression of FUT4 in tumor tissues is correlated with early stages of NSCLC. We also analyzed scaffolds proteins of sLex/sLea and it was identified the carcinoembryonic antigen as an E-SL in NSCLC. In summary, this thesis contributed to a better understanding of the glycosidic changes and molecules that can influence tumor progression of LC, allowing identifying in the future new diagnosis/prognosis biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for NSCLC.
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Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common form of cancer in men, in Europe (World Health Organization data). The most recent statistics, in Portuguese territory, confirm this scenario, which states that about 50% of Portuguese men may suffer from prostate cancer and 15% of these will die from this condition. Its early detection is therefore fundamental. This is currently being done by Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) screening in urine but false positive and negative results are quite often obtained and many patients are sent to unnecessary biopsy procedures. This early detection protocol may be improved, by the development of point-of-care cancer detection devices, not only to PSA but also to other biomarkers recently identified. Thus, the present work aims to screen several biomarkers in cultured human prostate cell lines, serum and urine samples, developing low cost sensors based on new synthetic biomaterials. Biomarkers considered in this study are the following: prostate specific antigen (PSA), annexin A3 (ANXA3), microseminoprotein-beta (MSMB) and sarcosine (SAR). The biomarker recognition may occurs by means of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP), which are a kind of plastic antibodies, and enzymatic approaches. The growth of a rigid polymer, chemically stable, using the biomarker as a template allows the synthesis of the plastic antibody. MIPs show high sensitivity/selectivity and present much longer stability and much lower price than natural antibodies. This nanostructured material was prepared on a carbon solid. The interaction between the biomarker and the sensing-material produces electrical signals generating quantitative or semi-quantitative data. These devices allow inexpensive and portable detection in point-of-care testing.
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Cancer remains as one of the top killing diseases in first world countries. Its not a single, but a set of various diseases for which different treatment approaches have been taken over the years. Cancer immunotherapy comes as a new breath on cancer treatment, taking use of the patients immune system to induce anti-cancer responses. Dendritic Cell (DC) vaccines use the extraordinary capacity of DCs antigen presentation so that specific T cell responses may be generated against cancer. In this work, we report the ex vivo generation of DCs from precursors isolated from clinical-grade cryopreserved umbilical cord blood (UCB) samples. After the thawing protocol for cryopreserved samples was optimized, the generation of DCs from CD14+ monocytes, i.e., moDCs, or CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), i.e, CD34-derived DCs, was followed and their phenotype and function evaluated. Functional testing included the ability to respond to maturation stimuli (including enzymatic removal of surface sialic acids), Ovalbumin-FITC endocytic capacity, cytokine secretion and T cell priming ability. In order to evaluate the feasibility of using DCs derived from UCB precursors to induce immune responses, they were compared to peripheral blood (PB) moDCs. We observed an increased endocytosis capacity after moDCs were differentiated from monocyte precursors, but almost 10-fold lower than that of PB moDCs. Maturation markers were absent, low levels of inflammatory cytokines were seen and T cell stimulatory capacity was reduced. Sialidase enzymatic treatment was able to mature these cells, diminishing endocytosis and promoting higher T cell stimulation. CD34-derived DCs showed higher capacity for both maturation and endocytic capacity than moDCs. Although much more information was acquired from moDCs than from CD34-derived DCs, we conclude the last as probably the best suited for generating an immune response against cancer, but of course much more research has to be performed.
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Notch is a conserved signalling pathway, which plays a crucial role in a multiple cellular processes such as stem cell self-renewal, cell division, proliferation and apoptosis. In mammalian, four Notch receptors and five ligands are described, where interaction is achieved through their extracellular domains, leading to a transcription activation of different target genes. Increased expression of Notch ligands has been detected in several types of cancer, including breast cancer suggesting that these proteins represent possible therapeutic targets. The goal of this work was to generate quality protein targets and, by phage display technology, select function-blocking antibodies specific for Notch ligands. Phage display is a powerful technique that allows the generation of highly specific antibodies to be used for therapeutics, and it has also proved to be a reliable approach in identifying and validating new cancer-related targets. Also, we aimed at solving the tri-dimensional structure of the Notch ligands alone and in complex with selected antibodies. In this work, the initial phase focused on the optimization of the expression and purification of a human Delta-like 1 ligand mutant construct (hDLL1-DE3), by refolding from E. coli inclusion bodies. To confirm the biological activity of the produced recombinant protein cellular functional studies were performed, revealing that treatment with hDLL1-DE3 protein led to a modulation of Notch target genes. In a second stage of this study, Antibody fragments (Fabs) specific for hDLL1-DE3 were generated by phage display, using the produced protein as target, in which one good Fab candidate was selected to determine the best expression conditions. In parallel, multiple crystallization conditions were tested with hDLL1-DE3, but so far none led to positive results.
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The advent of bioconjugation impacted deeply the world of sciences and technology. New biomolecules were found, biological processes were understood, and novel methodologies were formed due to the fast expansion of this area. The possibility of creating new effective therapies for diseases like cancer is one of big applications of this now big area of study. Off target toxicity was always the problem of potent small molecules with high activity towards specific tumour targets. However, chemotherapy is now selective due to powerful linkers that connect targeting molecules with affinity to interesting biological receptors and cytotoxic drugs. This linkers must have very specific properties, such as high stability in plasma, no toxicity, no interference with ligand affinity nor drug potency, and at the same time, be able to lyse once inside the target molecule to release the therapeutic warhead. Bipolar environments between tumour intracellular and extracellular medias are usually exploited by this linkers in order to complete this goal. The work done in this thesis explores a new model for that same task, specific cancer drug delivery. Iminoboronates were studied due to its remarkable selective stability towards a wide pH range and endogenous molecules. A fluorescence probe was design to validate this model by creating an Off/On system and determine the payload release location in situ. A process was optimized to synthetize the probe 8-(1-aminoethyl)-7-hydroxy-coumarin (1) through a reductive amination reaction in a microwave reactor with 61 % yield. A method to conjugate this probe to ABBA was also optimized, obtaining the iminoboronate in good yields in mild conditions. The iminoboronate model was studied regarding its stability in several simulated biological environments and each half-life time was determined, showing the conjugate is stable most of the cases except in tumour intracellular systems. The construction of folate-ABBA-coumarin bioconjugate have been made to complete this evaluation. The ability to be uptaken by a cancer cell through endocytosis process and the conjugation delivery of coumarin fluorescence payload are two features to hope for in this construct.
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RESUMO: Actualmente, a nica possibilidade de cura para doentes com adenocarcinoma do pncreas (PDAC) a resseco cirrgica, no incio deste estudo, perguntamo-nos se os predictores clnico-patolgicos clssicos de prognostico poderiam ser validados em uma grande cohort de doentes com cancro do pncreas ressecvel e se outros predictores clnicos poderiam ter um papel na deciso de que doentes beneficiariam de resseco cirrgica. No captulo 2, observamos que at 30% dos doentes morrem no primeiro ano aps a resseco cirrgica, pelo que o nosso objectivo foi determinar factores pr-operatrios que se correlacionam com mortalidade precoce aps ressecao cirrgica com recurso a um instrumento estatisticamente validado, o Charlson-Age Comorbidity Index (CACI), determinamos que um CACI score superior a 4 foi preditivo de internamentos prolongados (p <0,001), complicaes ps-operatrias (p = 0,042), e mortalidade em 1 ano ps- resseco cirrgica (p <0,001). Um CACI superior a 6 triplicou a mortalidade no primeiro ano ps-cirurgia e estes doentes tm menos de 50% de probabilidade de estarem vivos um ano aps a cirurgia. No captulo 3, o nosso objectivo foi identificar uma protena de superfcie que se correlacionasse estatisticamente com o prognostico de doentes com adenocarcinoma do pncreas e permitisse a distino de subgrupos de doentes de acordo com as suas diferenas moleculares, perguntamo-nos ainda se essa protena poderia ser um marcador de clulas-estaminais. No nosso trabalho anterior observamos que as clulas tumorais na circulao sangunea apresentavam genes com caractersticas bifenotpica epitelial e mesenquimal, enriquecimento para genes de clulas estaminais (ALDH1A1 / ALDH1A2 e KLF4), e uma super-expresso de genes da matriz extracelular (colagnios, SPARC, e DCN) normalmente identificados no estroma de PDAC. Aps a avaliao dos tumores primrios com RNA-ISH, muitos dos genes identificados, foram encontrados co-localizando em uma sub-populao de clulas na regio basal dos ductos pancreticos malignos. Alm disso, observamos que estas clulas expressam o marcador SV2A neuroendcrino, e o marcador de clulas estaminais ALDH1A1/2. Em comparao com tumores negativos para SV2, os doentes com tumores SV2 positivos apresentaram nveis mais baixos de CA 19-9 (69% vs. 52%, p = 0,012), tumores maiores (> 4 cm, 23% vs. 10%, p = 0,0430), menor invaso de gnglios linfticos (69% vs. 86%, p = 0,005) e tumores mais diferenciados (69% vs. 57%, p = 0,047). A presena de SV2A foi associada com uma sobrevida livre de doena mais longa (HR: 0,49 p = 0,009) bem como melhor sobrevida global (HR: 0,54 p = 0,018). Em conjunto, esta informao aponta para dois subtipos diferentes de adenocarcinoma do pncreas, e estes subtipos co-relacionam estatisticamente com o prognostico de doentes, sendo este subgrupo definido pela presena do clone celular SV2A / ALDH1A1/2 positivo com caractersticas neuroendcrinas. No Captulo 4, a expresso de SV2A no cancro do pncreas foi validado em linhas celulares primrias. Demonstramos a heterogeneidade do adenocarcinoma do pncreas de acordo com caractersticas clonais neuroendcrinas. Ao comparar as linhas celulares expressando SV2 com linhas celulares negativas, verificamos que as linhas celulares SV2+ eram mais diferenciadas, diferindo de linhas celulares SV2 negativas no que respeita a mutao KRAS, proliferao e a resposta quimioterapia. No captulo 5, perguntamo-nos se o clone celular SV2 positivo poderia explicar a resistncia a quimioterapia observada em doentes. Observamos um aumento absoluto de clones celulares expressando SV2A, em mltiplas linhas de evidncia - doentes, linhas de clulas primrias e xenotransplantes. Embora, tenhamos sido capazes de demonstrar que o adenocarcinoma do pncreas uma doena heterognea, consideramos que a caracterizao gentica destes clones celulares expressando SV2A de elevada importncia. Pretendemos colmatar esta limitao com as seguintes estratgias: Aps o tratamento com quimioterapia neoadjuvante na nossa coorte, realizamos microdissecao a laser das amostras primarias em parafina, de forma a analisar mutaes genticas observadas no adenocarcinoma pancretico; em segundo lugar, pretendemos determinar consequncias de knockdown da expresso de SV2A em nossas linhas celulares seguindo-se o tratamento com gemicitabina para determinao do papel funcional de SV2A; finalmente, uma vez que os nossos esforos anteriores com um promotor - reprter e SmartFlare falharam, o prximo passo ser realizar RNA-ISH PrimeFlow seguido de FACS e RNA-seq para caracterizao deste clone celular. Em conjunto, conseguimos provar com vrias linhas de evidncia, que o adenocarcinoma pancretico uma doena heterognea, definido por um clone de clulas que expressam SV2A, com caractersticas neuroendcrinas. A presena deste clone no tecido de doentes correlaciona-se estatisticamente com o prognostico da doena, incluindo sobrevida livre de doena e sobrevida global. Juntamente com padres de proliferao e co-expresso de ALDH1A1/2, este clone parece apresentar um comportamento de clulas estaminais e est associado a resistncia a quimioterapia, uma vez que a sua expresso aumenta aps agresso qumica, quer em doentes, quer em linhas de clulas primrias.----------------------------- ABSTRACT: Currently, the only chance of cure for patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma is surgical resection, at the beginning of my thesis studies, we asked if the classical clinicopathologic predictors of outcome could be validated in a large cohort of patients with early stage pancreatic cancer and if other clinical predictors could have a role on deciding which patients would benefit from surgery. In chapter 2, we found that up to 30% of patients die within the first year after curative intent surgery for pancreatic adenocarcinoma. We aimed at determining pre-operative factors that would correlate with early mortality following resection for pancreatic cancer using a statistically validated tool, the Charlson-Age Comorbidity Index (CACI). We found that a CACI score greater than 4 was predictive of increased length of stay (p<0.001), post-operative complications (p=0.042), and mortality within 1-year of pancreatic resection (p<0.001). A CACI score of 6 or greater increased 3-fold the odds of death within the first year. Patients with a high CACI score have less than 50% likelihood of being alive 1 year after surgery. In chapter 3 we aimed at identifying a surface protein that correlates with patients outcome and distinguishes sub-groups of patients according to their molecular differences and if this protein could be a cancer stem cell marker. The most abundant class of circulating tumor cells identified in our previous work was found to have biphenotypic features of epithelial to mesenchymal transition, enrichment for stem-cell associated genes (ALDH1A1/ALDH1A2 and KLF4), and an overexpression of extracellular matrix genes (Collagens, SPARC, and DCN) normally found in the stromal microenvironment of PDAC primary tumors. Upon evaluation of matched primary tumors with RNA-ISH, many of the genes identified were found to co-localize in a sub-population of cells at the basal region of malignant pancreatic ducts. In addition, these cells expressed the neuroendocrine marker SV2A, and the stem cell marker ALDH1A1/2. Compared to SV2 negative tumors, patients with SV2 positive tumors were more likely to present with lower CA 19-9 (69% vs. 52%, p = 0.012), bigger tumors (size > 4 cm, 23% vs. 10%, p= 0.0430), less nodal involvement (69% vs. 86%, p = 0.005) and lower histologic grade (69% vs. 57%, p = 0.047). The presence of SV2A expressing cells was associated with an improved disease free survival (HR: 0.49 p=0.009) and overall survival (HR: 0.54 p=0.018) and correlated linearly with ALDH1A2. Together, this information points to two different sub-types of pancreatic adenocarcinoma, and these sub-types correlated with patients outcome and were defined by the presence of a SV2A/ ALDH1A1/2 expressing clone with neuroendocrine features. In Chapter 4, SV2A expression in cancer was validated in primary cell lines. We were able to demonstrate pancreatic adenocarcinoma heterogeneity according to neuroendocrine clonal features. When comparing SV2 expressing cell lines with SV2 negative cell lines, we found that SV2+ cell lines were more differentiated and differ from SV2 negative cell lines regarding KRAS mutation, proliferation and response to chemotherapy. In Chapter 5 we aimed at determining if this SV2 positive clone could explain chemoresistance observed in patients. We found an absolute increase in SV2A expressing cells, with multiple lines of evidence, in patients, primary cell lines and xenografts. Although, we have been able to show evidence that pancreatic adenocarcinoma is a heterogeneous disease, our findings warrant further investigation. To further characterize SV2A expressing clones after treatment with neoadjuvant chemotherapy in our cohort, we have performed laser capture microdissection of the paraffin embedded tissue in this study and will analyze the tissue for known genetic mutations in pancreatic adenocarcinoma; secondly, we want to know what will happen after knocking down SV2A expression in our cell lines followed by treatment with gemcitabine to determine if SV2A is functionally important; finally, since our previous efforts with a promoter reporter and SmartFlare have failed, we will utilize a novel PrimeFlow RNA-ISH assay followed by FACS and RNA sequencing to further characterize this cellular clone. Overall our data proves, with multiple lines of evidence, that pancreatic adenocarcinoma is a heterogeneous disease, defined by a clone of SV2A expressing cells, with neuroendocrine features. The presence of this clone in patients tissue correlates with patients disease free survival and overall survival. Together with patterns of proliferation and ALDH1A1/2 co-expression, this clone seems to present a stem-cell-like behavior and is associated with chemoresistance, since it increases after chemotherapy, both in patients and primary cell lines.
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RESUMO: Introduo: Tratamento do carcinoma da mama Este trabalho inicia-se com a histria do tratamento do carcinoma da mama, desde os primeiros documentos que descrevem doentes com carcinoma da mama at 1950. Desde 1950 at 2000 o diagnstico, risco e as modalidades teraputicas usadas no tratamento das doentes so mais detalhadas com nfase nas teraputicas locais, regionais e sistmicas. Parte 1:Quem tratar com teraputica sistmica adjuvante Captulo 1: A classificao TNM no est morta no carcinoma da mama Tem sido dito que a classificao TNM no adequada para usar como ferramenta de prognstico e deciso teraputica no carcinoma da mama, especialmente em doentes com carcinoma detectado atravs de rastreio, que tem geralmente menores dimenses. A razo desta classificao no ser adequada prendese com o facto de no estarem incluidos parmetros biolgicos na classificao TNM atual. Pusemos a hiptese de que numa populao com alta percentagem de carcinoma da mama no detectado em exames de rastreio, com uma mediana de idade baixa e com alta percentagem de estadios II e III, o estadiamento clssico, pela classificao TNM, mais descriminatrio que as caractersticas biolgicas na determinao do prognstico. Para isto analismos uma populao de doentes com carcinoma da mama tratados consecutivamente na mesma instituio, durante 10 anos. Caracterizmos os fatores de prognstico do estadiamento clssico includos na classificao TNM e as variantes biolgicas, presentemente no includas na classificao TNM. Quantificmos a capacidade de cada um dos factores de prognstico para para prever a sobrevivncia. A populao de 1699 doentes com carcinoma da mama que foram tratdos com teraputica sistmica adjuvante. Individualmente, cada um dos fatores de prognostico, clssicos ou biolgicos, diferem significativamente entre doentes que sobrevivem e que no sobrevivem. Explicitamente, como previsto, doentes com tumores maiores, envolvimento dos gnglios axilares, estadios TNM mais avanados, que no expressam recetor de esrogneo, com amplificao do gene Her2, triplos negativos ou de menor diferenciao tm menor sobrevida. Na anlise multivariada, s os fatores de prognostico da classificao TNM, o grau histolgico e a amplificao do gene Her2, esta ltima com menos significncia estatistica so preditores independentes de sobrevivncia. Captulo 2: Em busca de novos factores de prognostico: Poder preditivo e mecanismo das alteraes de centrossomas em carcinoma da mama Compilmos inmeros grupos de experincias de genmica feitas em tumores primrios de doentes com carcinoma da mama para as quais existe informao prognstica. Estas experincias so feitas com o objectivo de descobrir novos factores de prognstico. Reanalismos os dados, repetindo a mesma pergunta: Quais so os genes com expresso diferencial estatisticamente significativa entre doentes que recaram e doentes que no recaram. Identificmos 65 genes nestas condies e o MKI67, o gene que codifica a proteina Ki67, estava nesse grupo. Identificmos vrios genes que se sabe estarem envolvidos no processo de agregao de centrossomas. O gene que considermos mais promissor foi a kinesina KiFC1, que j tinha sido identificada como regulador da agregao de centrossomas. Anomalias cetrossomais numricas e estruturais tm sido observadas em neoplasias. H dados correlacionando anolmalias centrossomais estruturais e e numricas com o grau de malignidade e os eventos precoces da carcinognese. Mas estas anomalias centrossomais tm um peso para a clula que deve adapatar-se ou entrar em apoptose. Os nossos resultados sugerem que existe um mecanismo adaptativo, a agregao de centrossomas, com impacto prognstico negativo. O nosso objetivo foi quantificar o valor prognstico das anomalias centrossomais no carcinoma da mama. Para isto usmos material de doentes dos quais sabemos a histria natural. Avalimos os genes de agregao de centrossomas, KIFC1 e TACC3, nas amostras tumorais arquivadas em parafina: primeiro com PCR (polymerase chain reaction) quantitativa e depois com imunohistoqumica (IHQ). Apenas a protena KIFC1 foi discriminatria em IHQ, no se tendo conseguido otimizar o anticorpo da TACC3. Os nveis proteicos de KIFC1 correlacionam-se com mau prognstico. Nas doentes que recaram observmos, no tumor primrio, maior abundncia desta protena com localizao nuclear. Em seguida, demonstrmos que a agregao de centrossomas um fenmeno que ocorre in vivo. Identificmos centrossomas agregados em amostras de tumores primrios de doentes que recaram. Tecnicamente usmos microscopia de fluorescncia e IHQ contra protenas centrossomais que avalimos nos tumores primrios arquivados em blocos de parafina. Observmos agregao de centrossomas num pequeno nmero de doentes que recaram, no validmos, ainda, este fentipo celular em larga escala. Parte 2: Como tratar com teraputica sistmica os vrios subtipos de carcinoma da mama Captulo 3: Quantas doenas esto englobadas na definio carcinoma da mama triplo negativo? (reviso) O carcinoma da mama triplo negativo um tumor que no expressa trs protenas: recetor de estrognio, recetor de progesterona e o recetor do fator de crescimento epidermico tipo 2 (Her2). As doentes com estes tumores no so ainda tratadas com teraputica dirigida, possivelmente porque esta definio negativa no tem ajudado. Sabemos apenas as alteraes genticas que estes tumores no tm, no as que eles tm. Talvez por esta razo, estes tumores so o subtipo mais agressivo de carcinoma da mama. No entanto, na prtica clnica observamos que estas doentes no tm sempre mau prognstico, alm de que dados de histopatologia e epidemiologia sugerem que esta definio negativa no est a capturar um nico subtipo de carcinoma da mama, mas vrios. Avalimos criticamente esta evidncia, clnica, histopatolgica, epidemiolgica e molecular. H evidncia de heterogeneidade, mas no claro quantos subtipos esto englobados nesta definio de carcinoma da mama triplo negativo. A resposta a esta pergunta, e a identificao do fundamento molecular desta heterogeneidade vai ajudar a melhor definir o prognstico e eventualmente a definir novos alvos teraputicos nesta populao difcil. Captulo 4: Terapuica sistmica em carcinoma da mama triplo negativo (reviso) A quimioterapia a nica teraputica sistmica disponvel para as doentes com carcinoma da mama triplo negativo, ao contrrio dos outros dois subtipo de carcinoma da mama que tm com a teraputica antiestrognica e anti Her2, importantes benefcios. Apesar de terem surgido vrias opes teraputicas para estes doentes nennhuma teraputica dirigida foi validada pelos ensaios clnicos conduzidos, possivelmente porque a biologia deste carcinoma ainda no foi elucidada. Muitos ensaios demonstram que os tumores triplos negativos beneficiam com quimioterapia e que as mais altas taxas de resposta patolgica completa teraputica neoadjuvante so observadas precisamente nestes tumors. A resposta patolgica completa correlaciona-se com a sobrevivncia. Estamos a estudar regimes adjuvantes especficos para doentes com estes tumors, mas, neste momento, regimes de terceira gerao com taxanos e antraciclinas so os mais promissores. O papel de subgrupos de frmacos especficos, como os sais de platina, mantmse mal definido. Quanto s antraciclinas e taxanos, estes grupos no mostraram beneficio especfico em carcinoma da mama triplo negativo quando comparado com os outros subtipos. Os prprios carcinomas da mama triplos negativos so heterogneos e carcinomas da mama basais triplos negativos com elevada taxa de proliferao e carcinomas da mama triplos negativos surgidos em doentes com mutao germinal BRCA1 podero ser mais sensveis a sais de platino e menos sensveis a taxanos. Como a definio molecular ainda no foi explicada a busca de teraputica dirigida vai continuar. Captulo 5: Ensaio randomizado de fase II do anticorpo monoclonal contra o recetor do fator de crescimento epidrmico tipo 1 combinado com cisplatino versus cisplatino em monoterapia em doentes com carcinoma da mama triplo negativo metastizado O recetor do fator de crescimento epidrmico tipo 1 est sobre expresso nos tumores das doentes com carcinoma da mama triplo negativo metastizado, um subtipo agressivo de carcinoma da mama. Este ensaio investigou a combinao de cetuximab e cisplatino versus cisplatino isolado em doentes deste tipo. Doentes em primeira ou segunda linha de teraputica para doena metastizada foram randomizadas, num sistema de 2 para 1, para receber at 6 ciclos da combinao de cisplatino e cetuximab ou cisplatino isolado. s doentes randomizadas para o brao de monoterapia podiamos, aps progresso, acrescentar cetuximab ou trat-las com cetuximab isolado. O objetivo primrio foi a taxa de resposta global. Os objetivos secundrios foram a sobrevivncia livre de doena, a sobrevivncia global e o perfil de segurana dos frmacos. A populao em anlise foram 115 doentes tratadas com a combinao e 58 doentes tratadas com cisplatino em monoterapia, 31 destas em quem se documentou progresso passaram a ser tratadas com um regime que inclua cetuximab, isolado ou em combinao. A taxa de resposta global foi de 20% no brao da combinaao e de 10% no brao da monoterapia (odds ratio, 2.13). A sobrevivncia livre de doena foi de 3.7 meses no brao da combinao e de 1.5 meses no brao em monoterapia (hazard ratio, 0.67). A sobrevivncia global foi de 12.9 meses no brao da combinao versus 9.4 meses no brao de cisplatino. Conclui-se que, apesar de no ter sido alcanado o objectivo primrio, acrescentar cetuximab, duplica a resposta e prolonga tanto a sobrevivncia livre de doena como a sobrevivncia global. Captulo 6: Bloquear a angiognese para tratar o carcinoma da mama (reviso) A angiognese uma caracterstica que define a neoplasia, porque tumores com mais de 1mm precisam de formar novos vasos para poderem crescer. Desde que se descobriram as molculas que orquestram esta transformao, que se tm procurado desenvolver e testar frmacos que interfiram com este processo. No carcinoma da mama o bevacizumab foi o primeiro frmaco aprovado pela FDA em primeira linha para tratar doena metasttica. Depois foram estudados um grupo de inibidores de tirosina cinase associados aos recetores transmembranares envolvidos na angiognese como o VEGFR, PDGFR, KIT, RET, BRAF e Flt3: sunitinib, sorafenib, pazopanib e axitinib Neste captulo, analisaram-se e resumiram-se os dados dos ensaios clnicos das drogas anti-angiognicas no tratamaneto do carcinoma da mama. Os ensaios de fase III do bevacizumab em carcinoma da mama mostraram uma reduo na progresso de doena de 22 a 52% e aumento da sobrevivncia livre de doena de 1.2 a 5.5 meses mas nunca foi demonstrado prolongamento de sobrevivncia. Os ensaios de fase III em carcinoma da mama adjuvante com bevacizumab so dois e foram ambos negativos. O ensaio de fase III com o inibidor da tirosina cinase, sunitinib foi negativo, enquanto que os ensaios de fase II com os inibidores da tirosina cinase sorafenib e pazopanib melhoraram alguns indicadores de resposta e sobrevivncia. A endostatina foi testada no contexto neoadjuvante com antraciclinas e melhorou a taxa de resposta, mas, mais ensaios so necessrios para estabelecer este frmaco. A maioria dos ensaios clnicos dos agentes antiangiognicos em carcinoma da mama reportaram aumento da taxa de resposta e de sobrevivncia livre de doena mas nunca aumento da sobrevivncia global quando comparado com quimioterapia isolada o que levou ao cepticismo a que assistimos atualmente em relao ao bloqueio da angiognese. Ensaios clnicos selecionados em doentes especficas com objetivos translacionais relacionados com material biolgico colhido, preferefencialmente em diferentes intervalos da teraputica, sero cruciais para o bloqueio da angiognese sobreviver como estratgia teraputica em carcinoma da mama. Captulo 7: A resposta hipoxia medeia a resistncia primria ao sunitinib em carcinoma da mama localmente avanado O sunitinib um frmaco antiangiognico que nunca foi avaliado isolado em doentes com carcinoma da mama no tratadas. O nosso objetivo foi caracaterizar a atividade do sunitinib isolado e em combinao com o docetaxel em carcinoma da mama no tratado, localmente avanado ou opervel, mas de dimenso superior a 2 cm, para compreender os mecanismos de resposta. Doze doentes foram tratadas com duas semanas iniciais de sunitinib seguido de quatro ciclos de combinao de sunitinib e docetaxel. A resposta, a reistncia e a toxicidade foram avaliadas de acordo com parametros clnicos, ressonncia magntica nuclear, tomografia de emisso de positres, histopatologia e perfis de expresso genmica. Detetmos resistncia primria ao sunitinib na janela inicial de duas semanas, evidenciada em quatro doentes que no responderam. data da cirurgia, cinco doentes tinham tumor vivel na mama e axila, quatro tinahm tumor vivel na mama e trs foram retiradas do ensaio. No houve respostas patolgicas completas. A comparao dos perfis de expresso genmica entre os respondedores e os no respondedores, aos quinze dias iniciais, permitiu-nos identificar sobre expresso de VEGF e outras vias angiognicas nos no respondedores. Especificamente, em tumores resistentes ao sunitinib isolado detectmos uma resposta transcricional hipoxia caracterizada por sobre expresso de vrios dos genes alvo do HIF1. Neste ensaio de sunitinib isolado em doentes no tratadas com carcinoma da mama localmente avanado, encontrmos evidncia molecular de resistncia primria ao sunitinib possivelmente mediada por sobre expresso de genes que respondem hipoxia. Parte 3: Quando parar a teraputica sistmica s doentes com carcinoma da mama Captulo 8: Agressividade teraputica ns ltimos trs meses de vida num estudo retrospetivo dum centro nico Inclumos todos os adultos que morreram com tumores slidos na instituio em 2003 e foram tratados com quimioterapia para tratar neoplaias metastizadas. Colhemos dados detalhados relacionados com quimioterapia e toxicidade nos ltimos trs meses de vida a partir do processo clnico. Trezentas e dezanove doentes foram includos, a mediana de idade foi 61 anos. A mediana de sobrevivncia de doena metasttica foi de 11 meses. 66% (211) dos doentes foram tratados com QT nos ltimos 3 meses de vida, 37% foram tratados com QT no limo ms de vida e 21% nas ltimas duas semanas. Nos doentes que foram tratados com QT nos ltimos trs meses de vida, 50% comearam um novo regime teraputico neste perodo e 14% comearam um novo regime no ltimo ms. Identificmos como determinantes de tratamento com QT no fim de vida a idade jovem, o carcinoma da mama, do ovrio e do pncreas. Conclumos que administrmos QT no fim de vida frequentemente e inicimos novos regimes teraputicos no ltimo ms de vida em 14% dos casos. Precisamos de aprofundar este trabalho para compreender se esta atitude agressiva resulta em melhor paliao de sintomas e qualidade de vida no fim de vida dos doentes com neoplasias disseminadas. Captulo 9: O tratamento do carcinoma da mama no fim de vida est a mudar? Quismos caracterizar a modificao da tendncia no uso de QT e de estratgias paliativas no fim de vida das doentes com carcinoma da mama em diferentes instituies e em intervalos de tempo diferentes. Para isto selecionmos doentes que morreram de carcinoma da mama durante 6 anos, entre 2007 e 2012, num hospital geral e comparmos com as doentes que morreram de carcinoma da mama em 2003 num centro oncolgico. Avalimos um total de 232 doentes. O grupo mais recente tem 114 doentes e o grupo anterior tem 118 doentes. Usmos estatstica descritiva para caracterizar QT no fim de vida e o uso de estratgias paliativas. Ambas as coortes so comparveis em termos das caractersticas do carcinoma da mama. Observmos aumento do uso de estatgias paliativas: consulta da dor, consulta de cuidados paliativos e radioterapia paliativa no cuidado das doentes com carcinoma da mama metastizado. Evidencimos aumento do nmero de mortes em servios de cuidados paliativos. No entanto, a QT paliativa continua a ser prolongada at aos ltimos meses de vida, embora tenhamos mostrado uma diminuio desta prtica. Outros indicadores de agressividade como a admisso hospitalar tambm mostraram diminuio. Confirmmos a nossa hiptese de que h maior integrao da medicina paliativa multidisciplinar e menos agressividade na teraputica sistmica das doentes com carcinoma da mama nos ltimos meses de vida. Chapter 10: Porque que os nossos doentes so tratados com quimioterapia at ao fim da vida? (editorial) Este captulo comea por dar o exmeplo duma jovem de 22 anos que viveu trs meses aps comear QT paliatva. Este caso epitomiza a futilidade teraputica e usado como ponto de partida para explorar as razes pelas quais administramos QT no fim de vida aos doentes quando intil, txica, logisticamente complexa e cara. Ser que estamos a prescrever QT at tarde demais? Os oncologistas fazem previses excessivamente otimistas e tm uma atitude pr teraputica excessiva e so criticados por outros intervenientes nas instituies de sade por isto. Crescentemente doentes, familiares, associaes de doentes, definidores de polticas de sade, jornalistas e a sociedade em geral afloram este tema mas tornam-se inconsistentes quando se trata dum doente prximo em que se modifica o discurso para que se faam teraputicas sitmicas agressivas. H uma crescente cultura de preservao da qualidade de vida, paliao, abordagem sintomtica, referenciao a unidades de cuidados paliativos e outros temas do fim de vida dos doentes oncolgicos terminais. Infelizmente, este tema tem ganhado momentum no porque os oncologistas estejam a refletir criticamente sobre a sua prtica, mas porque os custos dos cuidados de sade so crescentes e incomportveis. Seja qual fr o motivo, as razes que levam os oncologistas a administrar QT no fim de vida devem ser criticamente elucidadas. Mas h poucos dados para nos guiar nesta fase delicada da vida dos doentes e os que existem so por vezes irreconciliveis, uma reviso destes dados que foi feita neste captulo. Concluso: A abordagem do carcinoma da mama no futuro? Na concluso, tenta-se olhar para o futuro e prever como ser a tomada a cargo dum doente com carcioma da mama amanh. Faz-se uma avaliao das vrias reas desde preveno, rastreio, suscetibilidade gentica e comportamental e teraputica. Na teraputica separa-se a teraputica locoregional, sistmica adjuvante e da doena metastizada. Nos trs ltimos pargrafos a histria duma mulher com um carcinoma localmente avanado que sobre expressa o recetor Her2, serve como ilustrao de como devemos estar preparados para incorporar evoluo, heterogeneidade e dinamismo no cuidado de doentes com carcinoma da mama. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT: Introduction: Breast cancer care in the past This work starts with an overview of the treatment of breast cancer (BC). From the first reports of patients ill with BC until 1950. From 1950 until 2000, there is a more detailed account on how BC patients were treated with emphasis on the different modalities, local, regional and systemic treatments and their evolution. Part 1: Who to treat with adjuvant systemic therapy? Chapter 1: TNM is not dead in breast cancer It has been said that the current TNM staging system might not be suitable for predicting breast cancer (BC) outcomes and for making therapeutic decisions, especially for patients with screen detected BC which is smaller. The reason for this is also due to the non inclusion of tumor biology parameters in the current TNM system. We hypothesize that in a population where there is still a large abundance of non screen detected BC, with a low median age of incidence and abundance of high TNM staged lesions, biology is still second to classical staging in predicting prognosis. We analyzed a population of consecutive BC patients from a single institution during ten years. We characterized current established prognostic factors, classical staging variables included in the current TNM staging system and biological variables, currently not included in the TNM system. We quantified the capacity of individual prognostic factors to predict survival. We analyzed a population of 1699 consecutive BC patients. We found that individually both the TNM system prognostic factors and the biological prognostic factors are differing among BC survivors and dead patients in a statistically significant distribution. Explicitly, patients with larger tumors, positive nodes, higher stage lesions, ER negative, HER2 positive, TN or lower differentiation tumors show decreased survival. In the multivariate analysis we can conclude that in a population such as ours classical TNM staging variables, irrespective of tumor biological features, are still the most powerful outcome predictors. Chapter 2: Defining breast cancer prognosis: The predictive power and mechanism of centrosome alterations in breast cancer We performed a systematic analysis of the literature and compiled an extensive data set of gene expression data originated in primary tumours of BC patients with prognostic information. We analysed this data seeking for genes consistently up or down regulated in poor prognosis BC, i.e. that relapsed after initial treatment. In the course this bioinformatics analysis our lab identified 65 genes statistically significant across multiple datasets that can discriminate between relapsed and non-relapsed BC patients. Among the identified genes, we have detected genes such as MKI67, a marker of mitotic activity which is routinely used in the clinic. Unexpectedly, we also discovered several genes found to be involved in centrosome clustering, The most prominent of these is the kinesin KIFC1, also called HSET, and previously identified as regulator of centrosome clustering. Centrosome abnormalities (numerical, structural) have been observed in cancer. Indeed, compelling data has shown that cells from many cancers have multiple and abnormal centrosomes, that are either correlated with tumour malignancy or considered an early tumorigenesis event. However, extra centrosomes come at a cost and cells must be able to handle such abnormalities or otherwise die. Thus our results suggested a new mechanism of breast cancer progression with negative prognostic value. We aimed at quantifying the predictive power of centrosome clustering in BC clinical setting and at detecting this process in BC patient material. We validated the centrosome clustering genes KIFC1 and TACC3 in formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) BC patient material, using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) technology. Our results indicate that the tested KIFC1 has a clear IHC signal (1) and that the protein expression patterns and levels correlate with prognosis, with relapsing patients having increased expression and nuclear localisation of this kinesin (2). Next we were able to show that centrosome clustering does occur in vivo. We identified centrosome amplification and clustering in breast cancer samples, and we established a fluorescence microscopy-based IHC approach by staining FFPE samples with centrosomal markers. Using this approach we have observed centrosome amplification and clustering in a small set of poor prognosis samples. By expanding the number of samples in which we have characterised the number of centrosomes, we were able to confirm our preliminary observation that centrosomes are clustered in relapsed BC. Part 2: How to treat breast cancer subtypes? Chapter 3: How many diseases is triple negative breast cancer? (review) Triple negative breast cancer is a subtype of breast cancer that does not express the estrogen receptor, the progesterone receptor and the epidermal growth factor receptor type 2 (Her2). These tumors are not yet treated with targeted therapies probably because no positive markers have been described to reliably classify them - they are described for what they are not. Perhaps for this reason, they are among the most aggressive of breast carcinomas, albeit with very heterogenous clinical behavior. The clinical observation that these patients do not carry a uniformly dismal prognosis, coupled with data coming from pathology and epidemiology, suggests that this negative definition is not capturing a single clinical entity, but several. We critically evaluate this evidence in this paper, reviewing clinical and epidemiological data, as well as molecular data. There is evidence for heterogeneity, but it is not clear how many diseases are grouped into triple negative breast cancer. Answering this question, and identifying the molecular basis of heterogeneity will help define prognosis and, eventually, the identification of new targeted therapies. Chapter 4: Systemic treatment for triple negative breast cancer (review) Chemotherapy remains the backbone of treatment for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Despite the appearance of new targeted and biologic agents there has been no targeted therapy validated for TNBC, possibly because the biology of TNBC has not been conclusively elucidated. Many studies have shown that TNBC derive significant benefit of chemotherapy in the neoadjuvant, adjuvant and metastatic treatment, possibly more benefit than other BC subtypes. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy studies have repeatedly shown higher response rates in TNBC than non-TNBC. Pathologic complete response has been shown to predict improved long term outcomes in BC. Although specific adjuvant regimens for TNBC are under study, third generation chemotherapy regimens utilizing dose dense or metronomic polychemotherapy are among the most effective tools presently available. The role of specific chemotherapy agents, namely platinum salts, in the treatment of TNBC remains undefined. Taxanes and anthracyclines are active in TNBC and remain important agents, but have not shown specific benefit over non-TNBC. TNBC is itself a heterogeneous group in which subgroups like basal like BC defined by higher proliferation and including those TNBC arising in BRCA1 mutation carriers may be more sensitive to platinum agents and relatively less sensitive to taxanes. The molecular characterization of TNBC is lacking and therefore the search for targeted therapy is still ongoing. Chapter 5: Randomized phase II study of the anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody cetuximab with cisplatin versus cisplatin alone in patients with metastatic triple-negative breast cancer Epidermal growth factor receptor is overexpressed in metastatic triple-negative breast cancers, an aggressive subtype of breast cancer. Our randomized phase II study investigated cisplatin with or without cetuximab in this setting. Patients who had received no more than one previous chemotherapy regimen were randomly assigned on a 2:1 schedule to receive no more than six cycles of cisplatin plus cetuximab or cisplatin alone. Patients receiving cisplatin alone could switch to cisplatin plus cetuximab or cetuximab alone on disease progression. The primary end point was overall response rate (ORR). Secondary end points studied included progressionfree survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and safety profiles. The full analysis set comprised 115 patients receiving cisplatin plus cetuximab and 58 receiving cisplatin alone; 31 patients whose disease progressed on cisplatin alone switched to cetuximab-containing therapy. The ORR was 20% with cisplatin plus cetuximab and 10% with cisplatin alone (odds ratio, 2.13). Cisplatin plus cetuximab resulted in longer PFS compared with cisplatin alone (median, 3.7 v 1.5 months; hazard ratio, 0.67. Corresponding median OS was 12.9 versus 9.4 months. While the primary study end point was not met, adding cetuximab to cisplatin doubled the ORR and appeared to prolong PFS and OS, warranting further investigation in mTNBC. Chapter 6: Blocking angiogenesis to treat breast cancer (review) Angiogenesis is a hallmark of cancer because tumors larger than 1mm need new vessels to sustain their growth. Since the discovery of the molecular players of this process and some inhibitors, that angiogenesis became a promising therapeutic target. Bevacizumab was the first molecular-targeted antiangiogenic therapy approved by the FDA and is used as first-line therapy in metastatic breast cancer. A second class of approved inhibitors (sunitinib, sorafenib, pazopanib and axitinib) include oral small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors that target vascular endothelial growth factor receptors, platelet-derived growth factor receptors, and other kinases including KIT, Ret, BRAF and Flt-3, but none of these have gained approval to treat breast cancer. This review analyzes and summarizes data from clinical trials of anti-angiogenic agents in the treatment of BC. Phase III trials of bevacizumab in advanced BC have demonstrated a reduction in disease progression (2252%), increased response rates and improvements in progression-free survival of 1.2 to 5.5 months, but no improvements in OS. Bevacizumab phase III trials in early BC have both been negative. Bevacizumab combined with chemotherapy is associated with more adverse events. Phase III trials of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor sunitinib were negative, while randomized phase II trials of sorafenib and pazopanib have improved some outcomes. Endostatin has been tested in neoadjuvant clinical trials in combination with anthracyclinebased chemotherapy in treatment-naive patients and has increased the clinical response rate, but more trials are needed to establish this drug. Most trials of anti-angiogenic agents in BC have reported improved RR and PFS but no increase in OS compared to chemotherapy alone, leading to skepticism towards blocking angiogenesis. Selected trials in selected BC populations with translational endpoints related to harvested tumor tissue and other biological material samples, preferentially at several timepoints, will be crucial if antiangiogenesis is to survive as a strategy to treat BC. Chapter 7: Does hypoxic response mediate primary resistance to sunitinib in untreated locally advanced breast cancer? The antiangiogenic drug sunitinib has never been evaluated as single agent in untreated BC patients. We aimed to characterize the activity of sunitinib, alone and with docetaxel, in untreated locally advanced or operable BC, and, to uncover the mechanisms of response. Twelve patients were treated with an upfront window of sunitinib followed by four cycles of sunitinib plus docetaxel. Response, resistance and toxicity were evaluated according to standard clinical parameters, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, pathology characterization and gene expression profiling. We detected primary resistance to sunitinib upfront window in untreated BC, as evidenced by four non-responding patients. At surgery, five patients had viable disease in the breast and axilla, four had viable tumor cells in the breast alone and three were taken off study due to unacceptable toxicity and thus not evaluated. Early functional imaging was useful in predicting response. There were no pathologic complete responses (pCR). Comparison of gene expression profiling tumor data between early responders and non-responders allowed us to identify upregulation of VEGF and angiogenic pathways in non responders. Specifically, in tumors resistant to the single-agent sunitinib we detected a transcriptional response to hypoxia characterized by over-expression of several HIF1 target genes. In this report of single-agent sunitinib treatment of untreated localized BC patients, we found molecular evidence of primary resistance to sunitinib likely mediated by up-regulation of hypoxia responsive genes. Part 3: When to stop systemic treatment of breast cancer patients? Chapter 8: The aggressiveness of cancer care in the last three months of life: a retrospective single centre analysis. All adult patients with solid tumors who died in our hospital in 2003 and received chemotherapy for advanced cancer, were included. Detailed data concerning chemotherapy and toxicity, in the last three months of life, were collected from patients clinical charts. A total of 319 patients were included. Median age was 61 years. Median time from diagnosis of metastatic disease to death was 11 months. The proportion of patients who received chemotherapy in the last three months of life was 66% (n=211), in the last month 37% and in the last two weeks 21%. Among patients who received chemotherapy in the last three months of life, 50% started a new chemotherapy regimen in this period and 14% in the last month. There was an increased probability of receiving chemotherapy in the last three months of life in younger patients and in patients with breast, ovarian and pancreatic carcinomas. There was a large proportion of patients who received chemotherapy in the last three months of life, including initiation of a new regimen within the last 30 days. Thus, further study is needed to evaluate if such aggressive attitude results in better palliation of symptoms at the end of life. Chapter 9: Is breast cancer treatment in the end of life changing? We aimed to characterize the shifting trends in use of anti-cancer chemotherapy and palliative care approaches in the end of life of BC patients in different institutions and times. For this, we selected women that died of BC during six years, from 2007 to 2012, and were treated in a central acute care general hospital and compared it with the BC patients that died in 2003 and were treated in a large cancer center. We analyzed a total of 232 patients: the more recent group has 114 women and the older cohort has 118. We used descriptive statistics to characterize CT in the EoL and use of palliative care resources. Both populations were similar in terms of BC characteristics. We observed more palliative care resources, pain clinic, palliative care teams and palliative radiotherapy, involved in the care of MBC patients and a shift towards more deaths at hospices. Systemic anti cancer treatments continue to be prolonged until very late in patients lives, notwithstanding, we could show a decrease in the use of such treatments. Other indicators of aggressiveness, namely hospital admissions, also show a decrease. We confirmed our hypothesis that there is more integration of multidisciplinary palliative care and less aggressiveness in the treatment of metastatic cancer patients, specifically, use of palliative anti-cancer treatment and hospital admissions. Nonetheless, we use systemic therapy until too late with underutilization of palliative medicine. Chapter 10: Why do our patients get chemotherapy until the end of life? (editorial) The editorial starts with a clinical case of a 21 year old patient that lives three months after starting palliative chemotherapy for the first time, a case that illustrates therapeutic futility at the end of life. Why are we not ceasing chemotherapy when it is useless, toxic, logistically complex and expensive? Are we prescribing chemotherapy until too late in solid tumor patients lives? Medical oncologists have overly optimistic predictions and, excessive, treatment-prone attitude and they are criticized by other health care providers for this. Increasingly, patients, their families, advocacy groups, policy makers, journalists and society at large dwell on this topic, which is a perplexing conundrum, because sometimes they are the ones demanding not to stop aggressive systemic anticancer treatments, when it comes to their loved ones. There is a growing culture of awareness toward preserving quality of life, palliative care, symptom-directed care, hospice referral and end of life issues regarding terminal cancer patients. Sadly, this issue is gaining momentum, not because oncologists are questioning their practice but because health care costs are soaring. Whatever the motive, the reasons for administering chemotherapy at the end of life should be known. There are few and conflicting scientific data to guide treatments in this delicate setting and we review this evidence in this paper. Conclusion: What is the future of breast cancer care? This work ends with a view into the future of BC care. Looking into the different areas from prevention, screening, hereditary BC, local, regional and systemic treatments of adjuvant and metastatic patients. The last three paragraphs are a final comment where the story of a patient with Her2 positive locally advanced breast cancer is used as paradigm of evolution, heterogeneity and dynamism in the management of BC.
