Assessment of direct radiological risk and indirect associated toxic risks originated by Coal-Fired Power Plants

Over the past few decades there has been some discussion concerning the increase of the natural background radiation originated by coal-fired power plants, due to the uranium and thorium content present in combustion ashes. The radioactive decay products of uranium and thorium, such as radium, radon, polonium, bismuth and lead, are also released in addition to a significant amount of 40K. Since the measurement of radioactive elements released by the gaseous emissions of coal power plants is not compulsory, there is a gap of information concerning this situation. Consequently, the prediction of dispersion and mobility of these elements in the environment, after their release, is based on limited data and the radiological impact from the exposure to these radioactive elements is unknown. This paper describes the methodology that is being developed to assess the radiological impact due to the raise in the natural background radiation level originated by the release and dispersion of the emitted radionuclides. The current investigation is part of a research project that is undergoing in the vicinity of Sines coal-fired power plant (south of Portugal) until 2013. Data from preliminary stages are already available and possible of interpretation.

Radiological impact associated to Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (TENORM) from coal-fired power plants emissions

Certain materials used and produced in a wide range of non-nuclear industries contain enhanced activity concentrations of natural radionuclides. In particular, electricity production from coal is one of the major sources of increased human exposure to naturally occurring radioactive materials. A methodology was developed to assess the radiological impact due to natural radiation background. The developed research was applied to a specific case study, the Sines coal-fired power plant, located in the southwest coastline of Portugal. Gamma radiation measurements were carried out with two different instruments: a sodium iodide scintillation detector counter (SPP2 NF, Saphymo) and a gamma ray spectrometer with energy discrimination (Falcon 5000, Canberra). Two circular survey areas were defined within 20 km of the power plant. Forty relevant measurements points were established within the sampling area: 15 urban and 25 suburban locations. Additionally, ten more measurements points were defined, mostly at the 20-km area. The registered gamma radiation varies from 20 to 98.33 counts per seconds (c.p.s.) corresponding to an external gamma exposure rate variable between 87.70 and 431.19 nGy/h. The highest values were measured at locations near the power plant and those located in an area within the 6 and 20 km from the stacks. In situ gamma radiation measurements with energy discrimination identified natural emitting nuclides as well as their decay products (Pb-212, Pb-2142, Ra-226, Th-232, Ac-228, Th-234, Pa-234, U- 235, etc.). According to the results, an influence from the stacks emissions has been identified both qualitatively and quantitatively. The developed methodology accomplished the lack of data in what concerns to radiation rate in the vicinity of Sines coal-fired power plant and consequently the resulting exposure to the nearby population.

Modelling the Contribution of 40K, 232Th and 226Ra to Radiation Dose and Risk from Airborne Discharges of Coal-Fired Power Plants

Coal contains trace elements and naturally occurring radionuclides such as 40K, 232Th, 238U. When coal is burned, minerals, including most of the radionuclides, do not burn and concentrate in the ash several times in comparison with their content in coal. Usually, a small fraction of the fly ash produced (2-5%) is released into the atmosphere. The activities released depend on many factors (concentration in coal, ash content and inorganic matter of the coal, combustion temperature, ratio between bottom and fly ash, filtering system). Therefore, marked differences should be expected between the by-products produced and the amount of activity discharged (per unit of energy produced) from different coal-fired power plants. In fact, the effects of these releases on the environment due to ground deposition have been received some attention but the results from these studies are not unanimous and cannot be understood as a generic conclusion for all coal-fired power plants. In this study, the dispersion modelling of natural radionuclides was carried out to assess the impact of continuous atmospheric releases from a selected coal plant. The natural radioactivity of the coal and the fly ash were measured and the dispersion was modelled by a Gaussian plume estimating the activity concentration at different heights up to a distance of 20 km in several wind directions. External and internal doses (inhalation and ingestion) and the resulting risk were calculated for the population living within 20 km from the coal plant. In average, the effective dose is lower than the ICRP’s limit and the risk is lower than the U.S. EPA’s limit. Therefore, in this situation, the considered exposure does not pose any risk. However, when considering the dispersion in the prevailing wind direction, these values are significant due to an increase of 232Th and 226Ra concentrations in 75% and 44%, respectively.

Dispersion Modelling of Natural Radionuclides 238U, 232Th and 40K Released from Coal-fired Power Plants Operations

The aim of this work was to simulate the radionuclides dispersion in the surrounding area of a coal-fired power plant, operational during the last 25 years. The dispersion of natural radionuclides (236Ra, 232Th and 40K) was simulated by a Gaussian plume dispersion model with three different stability classes estimating the radionuclides concentration at ground level. Measurements of the environmen-tal activity concentrations were carried out by γ-spectrometry and compared with results from the air dispersion and deposition model which showed that the stabil-ity class D causes the dispersion to longer distances up to 20 km from the stacks.

Modeling radionuclides dispersion and deposition downwind of a coal-fired power plant

In this study the inhalation doses and respective risk are calculated for the population living within a 20 km radius of a coal-fired power plant. The dispersion and deposition of natural radionuclides were simulated by a Gaussian dispersion model estimating the ground level activity concentration. The annual effective dose and total risk were 0.03205 mSv/y and 1.25 x 10-8, respectively. The effective dose is lower than the limit established by the ICRP and the risk is lower than the limit proposed by the U.S. EPA, which means that the considered exposure does not pose any risk for the public health.

Radiation dose rates and exposure associated to Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (TENORM) at locations of a Portuguese coal-fired power plant

Coal contains trace quantities of natural radionuclides such as Th-232, U-235, U-238, as well as their radioactive decay products and 40K. These radionuclides can be released as fly ash in atmospheric emissions from coal-fired power plants, dispersed into the environment and deposited on the surrounding top soils. Therefore, the natural radiation background level is enhanced and consequently increase the total dose for the nearby population. A radiation monitoring programme was used to assess the external dose contribution to the natural radiation background, potentially resulting from the dispersion of coal ash in past atmospheric emissions. Radiation measurements were carried out by gamma spectrometry in the vicinity of a Portuguese coal-fired power plant. The radiation monitoring was achieved both on and off site, being the boundary delimited by a 20 km circle centered in the stacks of the coal plant. The measured radionuclides concentrations for the uranium and thorium series ranged from 7.7 to 41.3 Bq/kg for Ra-226 and from 4.7 to 71.6 Bq/kg for Th-232, while K-40 concentrations ranged from 62.3 to 795.1 Bq/kg. The highest values were registered near the power plant and at distances between 6 and 20 km from the stacks, mainly in the prevailing wind direction. The absorbed dose rates were calculated for each sampling location: 13.97-84.00 ηGy/h, while measurements from previous studies carried out in 1993 registered values in the range of 16.6-77.6 ηGy/h. The highest values were registered at locations in the prevailing wind direction (NW-SE). This study has been primarily done to assess the radiation dose rates and exposure to the nearby population in the surroundings of a coal-fired power plant. The results suggest an enhancement or at least an influence in the background radiation due to the coal plant past activities.

Measurements of environmental background radiation in the surrounding area of a coal-fired power plant

Certain materials used and produced in a wide range of non-nuclear industries contain enhanced activity concentrations of natural radionuclides. In particular, electricity production from coal is one of the major sources of increased exposure to man from enhanced naturally occurring materials. Over the past decades there has been some discussion about the elevated natural background radiation in the area near coal-fired power plants due to high uranium and thorium content present in coal. This work describes the methodology developed to assess the radiological impact due to natural radiation background increasing levels, potentially originated by a coal-fired power plant’s operation. Gamma radiation measurements have been done with two different instruments: a scintillometer (SPP2 NF, Saphymo) and a gamma ray spectrometer with energy discrimination (Falcon 5000, Canberra). A total of 40 relevant sampling points were established at locations within 20 km from the power plant: 15 urban and 25 suburban measured stations. The highest values were measured at the sampling points near to the power plant and those located in the area within the 6 and 20 km from the stacks. This may be explained by the presence of a huge coal pile (1.3 million tons) located near the stacks contributing to the dispersion of unburned coal and, on the other hand, the height of the stacks (225 m) which may influence ash’s dispersion up to a distance of 20 km. In situ gamma radiation measurements with energy discrimination identified natural emitting nuclides as well as their decay products (212Pb, 214Pb, 226Ra 232Th, 228Ac, 234Th 234Pa, 235U, etc.). This work has been primarily done to in order to assess the impact of a coal-fired power plant operation on the background radiation level in the surrounding area. According to the results, an increase or at least an influence has been identified both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Reactive power management strategies in future smart grids

The reactive power management in distribution network with large penetration of distributed energy resources is an important task in future power systems. The control of reactive power allows the inclusion of more distributed recourses and a more efficient operation of distributed network. Currently, the reactive power is only controlled in large power plants and in high and very high voltage substations. In this paper, several reactive power control strategies considering a smart grids paradigm are proposed. In this context, the management of distributed energy resources and of the distribution network by an aggregator, namely Virtual Power Player (VPP), is proposed and implemented in a MAS simulation tool. The proposed methods have been computationally implemented and tested using a 32-bus distribution network with intensive use of distributed resources, mainly the distributed generation based on renewable resources. Results concerning the evaluation of the reactive power management algorithms are also presented and compared.

Power Law Behavior and Self-similarity in Modern Industrial Accidents

Advances in technology have produced more and more intricate industrial systems, such as nuclear power plants, chemical centers and petroleum platforms. Such complex plants exhibit multiple interactions among smaller units and human operators, rising potentially disastrous failure, which can propagate across subsystem boundaries. This paper analyzes industrial accident data-series in the perspective of statistical physics and dynamical systems. Global data is collected from the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) during the time period from year 1903 up to 2012. The statistical distributions of the number of fatalities caused by industrial accidents reveal Power Law (PL) behavior. We analyze the evolution of the PL parameters over time and observe a remarkable increment in the PL exponent during the last years. PL behavior allows prediction by extrapolation over a wide range of scales. In a complementary line of thought, we compare the data using appropriate indices and use different visualization techniques to correlate and to extract relationships among industrial accident events. This study contributes to better understand the complexity of modern industrial accidents and their ruling principles.

Assessment of the environmental radiation by in situ gamma ray spectrometry

Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) under certain conditions can reach hazardous radiological levels contributing to an additional exposure dose to ionizing radiation. Most environmental concerns are associated with uranium mining and milling sites, but the same concerns should be addressed to natural near surface occurrences of uranium as well as man-made sources such as technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) resulting from phosphates industry, ceramic industry and energy production activities, in particular from coal-fired power plants which is one of the major sources of increased exposure to man from enhanced naturally occurring materials. This work describes the methodology developed to assess the environmental radiation by in situ gamma spectrometry in the vicinity of a Portuguese coal fired power plant. The current investigation is part of a research project that is undergoing in the vicinity of Sines Coal-Fired Power Plant (south of Portugal) until the end of 2013.

Dimensionamento do Sistema Híbrido para Alimentação de Energia Elétrica da Escola Rural de Nangade (Cabo Delgado)

Os combustíveis fósseis, como o carvão, o petróleo e o gás, constituem fontes de energia que em breve se esgotarão e que são demasiado caras para serem desperdiçadas pelas centrais elétricas na produção de electricidade. Para além desse facto, existem outros argumentos (sobretudo económicos) que inviabilizam a utilização destas fontes de energia em algumas regiões, abrindo caminho a fontes de energia alternativas (e.g. solar, eólica, biomassa, mini-hídricas, geotérmicas, etc) e preferencialmente com contornos locais. No caso particular de Moçambique, tem-se verificado um interesse crescente por parte do governo e de várias ONGs na promoção do uso de energias alternativas para as zonas onde a energia convencional não chega e não chegará, devido aos custos muito elevados que esse processo acarretaria. Esta dissertação apresenta um estudo aprofundado do dimensionamento dum sistema híbrido de geração de energia elétrica envolvendo gerador FV e grupo eletrogéneo de emergência para a Escola Rural da Nangade, situada no Distrito de Nangade, na Província do Cabo Delgado. São também descritos os diversos componentes e as tecnologias associadas a um sistema deste género, com a inclusão de sistemas inteligentes de controlo de energia com a utilização de inversores bidireccionais (inversores de bateria e carregadores) para sistemas isolados. Os resultados são apresentados de forma a facilitar a aplicação e montagem deste tipo de sistemas in loco. Espera-se que esta dissertação possa servir de base no futuro próximo, para a implementação deste tipo de sistemas para permitir a melhoria da qualidade de ensino através de melhores infraestruturas, democratizando desta forma o acesso à educação para as crianças das zonas rurais das várias províncias de Moçambique. Como as energias renováveis são parte integrante do Sistema Elétrico Nacional, apresenta-se resumidamente, no anexo 17, o “Plano de Desenvolvimento na Área de Energia de Moçambique”.

Projetos geotérmicos para usos diretos em Portugal Continental: tipologias e viabilidade económica

Os aproveitamentos geotérmicos têm vindo a aumentar significativamente em todo o mundo, sendo os Estados Unidos da América, o maior produtor desta energia proveniente do interior da Terra, com cerca de 3.187 MW de capacidade instalada. Portugal tem capacidade instalada total de 29 MW, no entanto no que se refere ao aproveitamento de “alta entalpia”, isto é, o aproveitamento geotérmico para produção elétrica, apenas se encontra no arquipélago dos Açores, na ilha de S. Miguel, onde estão instaladas e em funcionamento duas centrais geotérmicas com a potência total de 23 MW, com produção de energia de 185 GWh. Em Portugal Continental, não se consegue produzir energia elétrica devido às temperaturas existentes, restringindo esta utilização apenas ao aproveitamento de baixa entalpia (máximo de 76 ºC). Este aproveitamento normalmente é feito em cascata, segundo, predominando o aquecimento de águas sanitárias, climatização, e para termas, usando águas termominerais. Para a exploração deste recurso renovável, é necessário conhecer a hidrogeologia do país, e relacioná-la com a fracturação, e acidentes tectónicos. Portugal Continental, está divido em quatros partes distintas a nível hidrogeológico, o Maciço Antigo, a Orla Ocidental, a Bacia Tejo-Sado e a Orla Meridional. Qualquer aproveitamento geotérmico em Portugal terá de atender a estas características, potenciando também, novas explorações geotérmicas orientadas para as pessoas, respeitando os valores sociais, culturais e ambientais. Neste contexto, existem alguns complexos geotérmicos em funcionamento, outros abandonados, e muitos outros em estudo para uma breve aplicação. Um exemplo de sucesso no aproveitamento do calor geotérmico, é o complexo de Chaves, que foi evoluindo desde 1985, até aos dias de hoje, continuando em exploração e em expansão para um melhor servir da população local. A existência de dois furos, e brevemente dum terceiro, servem para o abastecimento duma piscina, dum hotel, das termas, e da balneoterapia. Devido à riqueza a nível das temperaturas, dos caudais, e ao nível das necessidades energéticas existentes, este complexo apresenta um tempo de retorno de investimento de cerca de 7 anos, o que é geralmente considerado para investimentos para fins públicos, como é o caso. No âmbito das investigações agora realizadas, foi constatado que estes projetos suportam a cobertura de alguma incerteza hidrogeológica, dada a importante procura existente.

Análise da Qualidade de Energia em Instalações Eléctricas com MiniProdução

Com a alteração da legislação energética em Portugal, nomeadamente a implementação da legislação de Micro e Minigeração, a produção distribuída cresceu de forma exponencial na rede elétrica nacional, diminuindo por um lado as perdas no transporte e distribuição, e por outro aumentando a complexidade na gestão do trânsito de potência ao Distribuidor. No entanto a motivação desta dissertação prende-se com o facto de que as centrais de produção distribuída, em particular as de tecnologia fotovoltaica, pela sua dimensão, serem instaladas nos pontos de consumo, em paralelo com a instalação elétrica de utilização do cliente e como tal, têm sido verificadas diversas anomalias no funcionamento e exploração das mesmas, por influência da má qualidade de energia resultante das más condições de funcionamento e exploração em que se encontram as instalações de consumo. A presente dissertação pretende apresentar uma descrição das anomalias mais frequentes verificadas nas centrais fotovoltaicas de minigeração com origem na qualidade da energia que transita das instalações elétricas de consumo ligadas ao mesmo ponto de interligação com a rede elétrica nacional. Como base de fundamento, foram demonstradas através de três casos práticos reais, algumas das mais frequentes e prejudiciais anomalias descritas na presente dissertação. Foram escolhidos 3 casos reais com diferentes tipos de instalação de consumo sendo que um deles não apresenta qualquer anomalia de forma a comprovar o bom funcionamento em condições normais de ambas as instalações. Foram encontradas e demonstradas várias soluções paras os diferentes tipos de anomalias, no entanto esta dissertação vai permitir não só a resolução deste tipo de anomalias em centrais fotovoltaicas em exploração e já com prejuízos avultados mas também introduzir em futuras instalações a análise da qualidade da energia nas instalações de consumo em fase preliminar de estudo de implementação de centrais fotovoltaicas de minigeração e de autoconsumo, precavendo futuros problemas de rentabilidade técnico-económica. Este estudo, irá certamente servir de motor de impulsão para a preocupação com a Qualidade da Energia essencialmente dentro das instalações elétricas de consumo sensibilizando os seus gestores energéticos. Poderá ainda impulsionar a reformulação do Regulamento de Qualidade de Serviço para exigências ainda mais apertadas de forma a incorporar algumas das anomalias aqui descritas, sendo por isso um elemento de alerta para todos os “Players” do Sistema Elétrico Nacional tendo como limite a melhoria continua da Segurança e da Qualidade da energia na rede elétrica beneficiando da sensibilização de todos os intervenientes.

Esclonamento de máquinas de cogeração utilzando programação inteira mista

As centrais termoelétricas convencionais convertem apenas parte do combustível consumido na produção de energia elétrica, sendo que outra parte resulta em perdas sob a forma de calor. Neste sentido, surgiram as unidades de cogeração, ou Combined Heat and Power (CHP), que permitem reaproveitar a energia dissipada sob a forma de energia térmica e disponibilizá-la, em conjunto com a energia elétrica gerada, para consumo doméstico ou industrial, tornando-as mais eficientes que as unidades convencionais Os custos de produção de energia elétrica e de calor das unidades CHP são representados por uma função não-linear e apresentam uma região de operação admissível que pode ser convexa ou não-convexa, dependendo das caraterísticas de cada unidade. Por estas razões, a modelação de unidades CHP no âmbito do escalonamento de geradores elétricos (na literatura inglesa Unit Commitment Problem (UCP)) tem especial relevância para as empresas que possuem, também, este tipo de unidades. Estas empresas têm como objetivo definir, entre as unidades CHP e as unidades que apenas geram energia elétrica ou calor, quais devem ser ligadas e os respetivos níveis de produção para satisfazer a procura de energia elétrica e de calor a um custo mínimo. Neste documento são propostos dois modelos de programação inteira mista para o UCP com inclusão de unidades de cogeração: um modelo não-linear que inclui a função real de custo de produção das unidades CHP e um modelo que propõe uma linearização da referida função baseada na combinação convexa de um número pré-definido de pontos extremos. Em ambos os modelos a região de operação admissível não-convexa é modelada através da divisão desta àrea em duas àreas convexas distintas. Testes computacionais efetuados com ambos os modelos para várias instâncias permitiram verificar a eficiência do modelo linear proposto. Este modelo permitiu obter as soluções ótimas do modelo não-linear com tempos computationais significativamente menores. Para além disso, ambos os modelos foram testados com e sem a inclusão de restrições de tomada e deslastre de carga, permitindo concluir que este tipo de restrições aumenta a complexidade do problema sendo que o tempo computacional exigido para a resolução do mesmo cresce significativamente.

Evaluation of the Electric Vehicle Impact in the Power Demand Curve in a Smart Grid Environment

Smart grids with an intensive penetration of distributed energy resources will play an important role in future power system scenarios. The intermittent nature of renewable energy sources brings new challenges, requiring an efficient management of those sources. Additional storage resources can be beneficially used to address this problem; the massive use of electric vehicles, particularly of vehicle-to-grid (usually referred as gridable vehicles or V2G), becomes a very relevant issue. This paper addresses the impact of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in system operation costs and in power demand curve for a distribution network with large penetration of Distributed Generation (DG) units. An efficient management methodology for EVs charging and discharging is proposed, considering a multi-objective optimization problem. The main goals of the proposed methodology are: to minimize the system operation costs and to minimize the difference between the minimum and maximum system demand (leveling the power demand curve). The proposed methodology perform the day-ahead scheduling of distributed energy resources in a distribution network with high penetration of DG and a large number of electric vehicles. It is used a 32-bus distribution network in the case study section considering different scenarios of EVs penetration to analyze their impact in the network and in the other energy resources management.