An improved preemption delay upper bound for floating non-preemptive region

In embedded systems, the timing behaviour of the control mechanisms are sometimes of critical importance for the operational safety. These high criticality systems require strict compliance with the offline predicted task execution time. The execution of a task when subject to preemption may vary significantly in comparison to its non-preemptive execution. Hence, when preemptive scheduling is required to operate the workload, preemption delay estimation is of paramount importance. In this paper a preemption delay estimation method for floating non-preemptive scheduling policies is presented. This work builds on [1], extending the model and optimising it considerably. The preemption delay function is subject to a major tightness improvement, considering the WCET analysis context. Moreover more information is provided as well in the form of an extrinsic cache misses function, which enables the method to provide a solution in situations where the non-preemptive regions sizes are small. Finally experimental results from the implementation of the proposed solutions in Heptane are provided for real benchmarks which validate the significance of this work.

Finding an upper bound on the increase in execution time due to contention on the memory bus in COTS-based multicore systems

Contention on the memory bus in COTS based multicore systems is becoming a major determining factor of the execution time of a task. Analyzing this extra execution time is non-trivial because (i) bus arbitration protocols in such systems are often undocumented and (ii) the times when the memory bus is requested to be used are not explicitly controlled by the operating system scheduler; they are instead a result of cache misses. We present a method for finding an upper bound on the extra execution time of a task due to contention on the memory bus in COTS based multicore systems. This method makes no assumptions on the bus arbitration protocol (other than assuming that it is work-conserving).

An analysis of the impact of bus contention on the WCET in multicores

The use of multicores is becoming widespread inthe field of embedded systems, many of which have real-time requirements. Hence, ensuring that real-time applications meet their timing constraints is a pre-requisite before deploying them on these systems. This necessitates the consideration of the impact of the contention due to shared lowlevel hardware resources like the front-side bus (FSB) on the Worst-CaseExecution Time (WCET) of the tasks. Towards this aim, this paper proposes a method to determine an upper bound on the number of bus requests that tasks executing on a core can generate in a given time interval. We show that our method yields tighter upper bounds in comparison with the state of-the-art. We then apply our method to compute the extra contention delay incurred by tasks, when they are co-scheduled on different cores and access the shared main memory, using a shared bus, access to which is granted using a round-robin arbitration (RR) protocol.

Response time analysis of COTS-Based multicores considering the contention on the shared memory bus

The current industry trend is towards using Commercially available Off-The-Shelf (COTS) based multicores for developing real time embedded systems, as opposed to the usage of custom-made hardware. In typical implementation of such COTS-based multicores, multiple cores access the main memory via a shared bus. This often leads to contention on this shared channel, which results in an increase of the response time of the tasks. Analyzing this increased response time, considering the contention on the shared bus, is challenging on COTS-based systems mainly because bus arbitration protocols are often undocumented and the exact instants at which the shared bus is accessed by tasks are not explicitly controlled by the operating system scheduler; they are instead a result of cache misses. This paper makes three contributions towards analyzing tasks scheduled on COTS-based multicores. Firstly, we describe a method to model the memory access patterns of a task. Secondly, we apply this model to analyze the worst case response time for a set of tasks. Although the required parameters to obtain the request profile can be obtained by static analysis, we provide an alternative method to experimentally obtain them by using performance monitoring counters (PMCs). We also compare our work against an existing approach and show that our approach outperforms it by providing tighter upper-bound on the number of bus requests generated by a task.

Supporting real-time distributed computer-controlled systems with multi-hop P-NET networks

Fieldbus communication networks aim to interconnect sensors, actuators and controllers within process control applications. Therefore, they constitute the foundation upon which real-time distributed computer-controlled systems can be implemented. P-NET is a fieldbus communication standard, which uses a virtual token-passing medium-access-control mechanism. In this paper pre-run-time schedulability conditions for supporting real-time traffic with P-NET networks are established. Essentially, formulae to evaluate the upper bound of the end-to-end communication delay in P-NET messages are provided. Using this upper bound, a feasibility test is then provided to check the timing requirements for accessing remote process variables. This paper also shows how P-NET network segmentation can significantly reduce the end-to-end communication delays for messages with stringent timing requirements.

Convex optimization framework for intermediate deadline assignment in soft and hard real-time distributed systems

It is generally challenging to determine end-to-end delays of applications for maximizing the aggregate system utility subject to timing constraints. Many practical approaches suggest the use of intermediate deadline of tasks in order to control and upper-bound their end-to-end delays. This paper proposes a unified framework for different time-sensitive, global optimization problems, and solves them in a distributed manner using Lagrangian duality. The framework uses global viewpoints to assign intermediate deadlines, taking resource contention among tasks into consideration. For soft real-time tasks, the proposed framework effectively addresses the deadline assignment problem while maximizing the aggregate quality of service. For hard real-time tasks, we show that existing heuristic solutions to the deadline assignment problem can be incorporated into the proposed framework, enriching their mathematical interpretation.

WiDom: a dominance protocol for wireless medium access

In this paper, we address the problem of sharing a wireless channel among a set of sporadic message streams where a message stream issues transmission requests with real-time deadlines. We propose a collision-free wireless medium access control (MAC) protocol which implements static-priority scheduling, supports a large number of priority levels and is fully distributed. It is an adaptation to a wireless channel of the dominance protocol used in the CAN bus. But, unlike that protocol, our protocol does not require a node having the ability to receive an incoming bit from the channel while transmitting to the channel. The evaluation of the protocol with real embedded computing platforms is presented to show that the proposed protocol is in fact collision-free and prioritized. We measure the response times of our implementation and show that the response-time analysis developed for the protocol offers an upper bound on the response times.

A two-competitive approximate schedulability analysis of CAN

Consider the problem of deciding whether a set of n sporadic message streams meet deadlines on a Controller Area Network (CAN) bus for a specified priority assignment. It is assumed that message streams have implicit deadlines and no release jitter. An algorithm to solve this problem is well known but unfortunately it time complexity is non-polynomial. We present an algorithm with polynomial time-complexity for computing an upper bound on the response times. Clearly, if the upper bound on the response time does not exceed the deadline then all deadlines are met. The pessimism of our approach is proven: if the upper bound of the response time exceeds the deadline then the response time exceeds the deadline as well for a CAN network with half the speed.

Implementation of a dominance protocol for wireless medium access

Consider the problem of scheduling sporadic message transmission requests with deadlines. For wired channels, this has been achieved successfully using the CAN bus. For wireless channels, researchers have recently proposed a similar solution; a collision-free medium access control (MAC) protocol that implements static-priority scheduling. Unfortunately no implementation has been reported, yet. We implement and evaluate it to find that the implementation indeed is collision-free and prioritized. This allows us to develop schedulability analysis for the implementation. We measure the response times of messages in our implementation and find that our new response-time analysis indeed offers an upper bound on the response times. This enables a new class of wireless real-time systems with timeliness guarantees for sporadic messages and it opens-up a new research area: schedulability analysis for wireless networks.

Disposable immunosensor using a simple method for oriented antibody immobilization for label-free real-time detection of an oxidative stress biomarker implicated in cancer diseases

This work proposes a novel approach for a suitable orientation of antibodies (Ab) on an immunosensing platform, applied here to the determination of 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8OHdG), a biomarker of oxidative stress that has been associated to chronic diseases, such as cancer. The anti-8OHdG was bound to an amine modified gold support through its Fc region after activation of its carboxylic functions. Non-oriented approaches of Ab binding to the platform were tested in parallel, in order to show that the presented methodology favored Ab/Ag affinity and immunodetection of the antigen. The immunosensor design was evaluated by quartz-crystal microbalance with dissipation, atomic force microscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and square-wave voltammetry. EIS was also a suitable technique to follow the analytical behavior of the device against 8OHdG. The affinity binding between 8OHdG and the antibody immobilized in the gold modified platform increased the charge transfer resistance across the electrochemical set-up. The observed behavior was linear from 0.02 to 7.0 ng/mL of 8OHdG concentrations. The interference from glucose, urea and creatinine was found negligible. An attempt of application to synthetic samples was also successfully conducted. Overall, the presented approach enabled the production of suitably oriented Abs over a gold platform by means of a much simpler process than other oriented-Ab binding approaches described in the literature, as far as we know, and was successful in terms of analytical features and sample application.