Numerical and experimental analyses of biocomposites reinforced with natural fibres

n the last decades the biocomposites have been widely used in the construction, automobile and aerospace industries. Not only the interface transition zone (ITZ) but also the heterogeneity of natural fibres affects the mechanical behaviour of these composites. This work focuses on the numerical and experimental analyses of a polymeric composite fabricated with epoxy resin and unidirectional sisal and banana fibres. A three-dimensional model was set to analyze the composites using the elastic properties of the individual phases. In addition, a two-dimensional model was set taking into account the effective composite properties obtained by micromechanical models. A tensile testing was performed to validate the numerical analyses and evaluating the interface condition of the constitutive phases.

Influence of the cohesive law parameters on the strength prediction of adhesively-bonded joints

Adhesive joints are largely employed nowadays as a fast and effective joining process. The respective techniques for strength prediction have also improved over the years. Cohesive Zone Models (CZM’s) coupled to Finite Element Method (FEM) analyses surpass the limitations of stress and fracture criteria and allow modelling damage. CZM’s require the energy release rates in tension (Gn) and shear (Gs) and respective fracture energies in tension (Gnc) and shear (Gsc). Additionally, the cohesive strengths (tn0 for tension and ts0 for shear) must also be defined. In this work, the influence of the CZM parameters of a triangular CZM used to model a thin adhesive layer is studied, to estimate their effect on the predictions. Some conclusions were drawn for the accuracy of the simulation results by variations of each one of these parameters.

Numerical prediction of delamination onset in carbon/epoxy composites drilling

Despite the fact that their physical properties make them an attractive family of materials, composites machining can cause several damage modes such as delamination, fibre pull-out, thermal degradation, and others. Minimization of axial thrust force during drilling reduces the probability of delamination onset, as it has been demonstrated by analytical models based on linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). A finite element model considering solid elements of the ABAQUS® software library and interface elements including a cohesive damage model was developed in order to simulate thrust forces and delamination onset during drilling. Thrust force results for delamination onset are compared with existing analytical models.

Strength prediction of adhesively-bonded scarf repairs in composite structures under bending

This work reports on the experimental and numerical study of the bending behaviour of two-dimensional adhesively-bonded scarf repairs of carbon-epoxy laminates, bonded with the ductile adhesive Araldite 2015®. Scarf angles varying from 2 to 45º were tested. The experimental work performed was used to validate a numerical Finite Element analysis using ABAQUS® and a methodology developed by the authors to predict the strength of bonded assemblies. This methodology consists on replacing the adhesive layer by cohesive elements, including mixed-mode criteria to deal with the mixed-mode behaviour usually observed in structures. Trapezoidal laws in pure modes I and II were used to account for the ductility of the adhesive used. The cohesive laws in pure modes I and II were determined with Double Cantilever Beam and End-Notched Flexure tests, respectively, using an inverse method. Since in the experiments interlaminar and transverse intralaminar failures of the carbon-epoxy components also occurred in some regions, cohesive laws to simulate these failure modes were also obtained experimentally with a similar procedure. A good correlation with the experiments was found on the elastic stiffness, maximum load and failure mode of the repairs, showing that this methodology simulates accurately the mechanical behaviour of bonded assemblies.

Experimental and numerical evaluation of composite repairs on wood beams damaged by cross-graining

An experimental and Finite Element study was performed on the bending behaviour of wood beams of the Pinus Pinaster species repaired with adhesively-bonded carbon–epoxy patches, after sustaining damage by cross-grain failure. This damage is characterized by crack growth at a small angle to the beams longitudinal axis, due to misalignment between the wood fibres and the beam axis. Cross-grain failure can occur in large-scale in a wood member when trees that have grown spirally or with a pronounced taper are cut for lumber. Three patch lengths were tested. The simulations include the possibility of cohesive fracture of the adhesive layer, failure within the wood beam in two propagation planes and patch interlaminar failure, by the use of cohesive zone modelling. The respective cohesive properties were estimated either by an inverse method or from the literature. The comparison with the tests allowed the validation of the proposed methodology, opening a good perspective for the reduction of costs in the design stages of these repairs due to extensive experimentation.

Numerical evaluation of three-dimensional scarf repairs in carbon-epoxy structures

The widespread employment of carbon-epoxy laminates in high responsibility and severely loaded applications introduces an issue regarding their handling after damage. Repair of these structures should be evaluated, instead of their disposal, for cost saving and ecological purposes. Under this perspective, the availability of efficient repair methods is essential to restore the strength of the structure. The development and validation of accurate predictive tools for the repairs behaviour are also extremely important, allowing the reduction of costs and time associated to extensive test programmes. Comparing with strap repairs, scarf repairs have the advantages of a higher efficiency and the absence of aerodynamic disturbance. This work reports on a numerical study of the tensile behaviour of three-dimensional scarf repairs in carbon-epoxy structures, using a ductile adhesive (Araldite® 2015). The finite elements analysis was performed in ABAQUS® and Cohesive Zone Modelling was used for the simulation of damage onset and growth in the adhesive layer. Trapezoidal cohesive laws in each pure mode were used to account for the ductility of the specific adhesive mentioned. A parametric study was performed on the repair width and scarf angle. The use of over-laminating plies covering the repaired region at the outer or both repair surfaces was also tested as an attempt to increase the repairs efficiency. The obtained results allowed the proposal of design principles for repairing composite structures.

Interlaminar fracture characterization of a carbon-epoxy composite in pure mode II

The interlaminar fracture toughness in pure mode II (GIIc) of a Carbon-Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) composite is characterized experimentally and numerically in this work, using the End-Notched Flexure (ENF) fracture characterization test. The value of GIIc was extracted by a new data reduction scheme avoiding the crack length measurement, named Compliance-Based Beam Method (CBBM). This method eliminates the crack measurement errors, which can be non-negligible, and reflect on the accuracy of the fracture energy calculations. Moreover, it accounts for the Fracture Process Zone (FPZ) effects. A numerical study using the Finite Element Method (FEM) and a triangular cohesive damage model, implemented within interface finite elements and based on the indirect use of Fracture Mechanics, was performed to evaluate the suitability of the CBBM to obtain GIIc. This was performed comparing the input values of GIIc in the numerical models with the ones resulting from the application of the CBBM to the numerical load-displacement (P-) curve. In this numerical study, the Compliance Calibration Method (CCM) was also used to extract GIIc, for comparison purposes.

Taper angle optimization of scarf repairs in carbon-epoxy laminates

The increasing use of Carbon-Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) laminates in high responsibility applications introduces an issue regarding their handling after damage. The availability of efficient repair methods is essential to restore the strength of the structure. The availability of accurate predictive tools for the repairs behaviour is also essential for the reduction of costs and time associated to extensive tests. This work reports on a numerical study of the tensile behaviour of three-dimensional (3D) adhesively-bonded scarf repairs in CFRP structures, using a ductile adhesive. The Finite Element (FE) analysis was performed in ABAQUS® and Cohesive Zone Models (CZM’s) was used for the simulation of damage in the adhesive layer. A parametric study was performed on two geometric parameters. The use of overlaminating plies covering the repaired region at the outer or both repair surfaces was also tested as an attempt to increase the repairs efficiency. The results allowed the proposal of design principles for repairing CFRP structures.

Mode III interlaminar fracture of carbon/epoxy laminates using the edge crack torsion (ECT) test

The mode III interlaminar fracture of carbon/epoxy laminates was evaluated with the edge crack torsion (ECT) test. Three-dimensional finite element analyses were performed in order to select two specimen geometries and an experimental data reduction scheme. Test results showed considerable non-linearity before the maximum load point and a significant R-curve effect. These features prevented an accurate definition of the initiation point. Nevertheless, analyses of non-linearity zones showed two likely initiation points corresponding to GIIIc values between 850 and 1100 J/m2 for both specimen geometries. Although any of these values is realistic, the range is too broad, thus showing the limitations of the ECT test and the need for further research.

Single-lap joints of similar and dissimilar adherends bonded with an acrylic adhesive

In this study, the tensile strength of single-lap joints (SLJs) between similar and dissimilar adherends bonded with an acrylic adhesive was evaluated experimentally and numerically. The adherend materials included polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), carbon-epoxy (CFRP), and glass-polyester (GFRP) composites. The following adherend combinations were tested: PE/PE, PE/PP, PE/CFRP, PE/GFRP, PP/PP, CFRP/CFRP, and GFRP/GFRP. One of the objectives of this work was to assess the influence of the adherends stiffness on the strength of the joints since it significantly affects the peel stresses magnitude in the adhesive layer. The experimental results were also used to validate a new mixed-mode cohesive damage model developed to simulate the adhesive layer. Thus, the experimental results were compared with numerical simulations performed in ABAQUS®, including a developed mixed-mode (I+II) cohesive damage model, based on the indirect use of fracture mechanics and implemented within interface finite elements. The cohesive laws present a trapezoidal shape with an increasing stress plateau, to reproduce the behaviour of the ductile adhesive used. A good agreement was found between the experimental and numerical results.

Análise de fadiga de uma ponte ferroviária com tabuleiro misto vigado sob ação de tráfego de mercadorias

A presente dissertação centra-se no estudo de fadiga de uma ponte ferroviária com tabuleiro misto vigado pertencente a uma via de transporte de mercadorias. O caso de estudo incide sobre a ponte ferroviária sobre o rio do Sonho, localizada na Estrada de Ferro de Carajás situada no nordeste do Brasil. Nesta linha circulam alguns dos maiores comboios de mercadoria do mundo com cerca de 3.7 km de extensão e com cargas por eixo superiores a 300 kN. Numa primeira fase apresentam-se diversas metodologias de análise da fadiga em pontes ferroviárias metálicas. É também descrita a ferramenta computacional FADBridge, desenvolvida em ambiente MATLAB, e que possibilita o cálculo sistematizado e eficiente do dano de fadiga em detalhes construtivos de acordo com as indicações dos eurocódigos. Em seguida são abordadas as metodologias numéricas utilizadas para a realização das análises dinâmicas do sistema ponte-comboio e os aspetos regulamentares a ter em consideração no dimensionamento de pontes ferroviárias. O modelo numérico de elementos finitos da ponte foi realizado com recurso ao programa ANSYS. Com base neste modelo foram obtidos os parâmetros modais, nomeadamente as frequências naturais e os modos de vibração, tendo sido também analisada a importância do efeito compósito via-tabuleiro e a influência do comportamento não linear do balastro. O estudo do comportamento dinâmico da ponte foi realizado por intermédio de uma metodologia de cargas móveis através da ferramenta computacional Train-Bridge Interaction (TBI). As análises dinâmicas foram efetuadas para a passagem dos comboios reais de mercadorias e de passageiros e para os comboios de fadiga regulamentares. Nestas análises foi estudada a influência dos modos de vibração globais e locais, das configurações de carga dos comboios e do aumento da velocidade de circulação, na resposta dinâmica da ponte. Por último, foi avaliado o comportamento à fadiga de diversos detalhes construtivos para os cenários de tráfego regulamentar e reais. Foi ainda analisada a influência do aumento da velocidade, da configuração de cargas dos comboios e da degradação da estrutura nos valores do dano por fadiga e da respetiva vida residual.

Saving energy in the GFRP pultrusion process

This study addresses to the optimization of pultrusion manufacturing process from the energy-consumption point of view. The die heating system of external platen heaters commonly used in the pultrusion machines is one of the components that contribute the most to the high consumption of energy of pultrusion process. Hence, instead of the conventional multi-planar heaters, a new internal die heating system that leads to minor heat losses is proposed. The effect of the number and relative position of the embedded heaters along the die is also analysed towards the setting up of the optimum arrangement that minimizes both the energy rate and consumption. Simulation and optimization processes were greatly supported by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and calibrated with basis on the temperature profile computed through thermography imaging techniques. The main outputs of this study allow to conclude that the use of embedded cylindrical resistances instead of external planar heaters leads to drastic reductions of both the power consumption and the warm-up periods of the die heating system. For the analysed die tool and process, savings on energy consumption up to 60% and warm-up period stages less than an half hour were attained with the new internal heating system. The improvements achieved allow reducing the power requirements on pultrusion process, and thus minimize industrial costs and contribute to a more sustainable pultrusion manufacturing industry.

Mathematical modeling and simulation of heat flow through pultrusion die assembly system for thermoset composites

Pultrusion is an industrial process used to produce glass fibers reinforced polymers profiles. These materials are worldwide used when performing characteristics, such as great electrical and magnetic insulation, high strength to weight ratio, corrosion and weather resistance, long service life and minimal maintenance are required. In this study, we present the results of the modelling and simulation of heat flow through a pultrusion die by means of Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The numerical simulation was calibrated based on temperature profiles computed from thermographic measurements carried out during pultrusion manufacturing process. Obtained results have shown a maximum deviation of 7%, which is considered to be acceptable for this type of analysis, and is below to the 10% value, previously specified as maximum deviation. © 2011, Advanced Engineering Solutions.

How to reduce energy consumption on pultrusion

The global warming due to high CO2 emission in the last years has made energy saving a global problem nowadays. However, manufacturing processes such as pultrusion necessarily needs heat for curing the resin. Then, the only option available is to apply all efforts to make the process even more efficient. Different heating systems have been used on pultrusion, however, the most widely used are the planar resistances. The main objective of this study is to develop another heating system and compares it with the former one. Thermography was used in spite of define the temperature profile along the die. FEA (finite element analysis) allows to understand how many energy is spend with the initial heating system. After this first approach, changes were done on the die in order to test the new heating system and to check possible quality problems on the product. Thus, this work allows to conclude that with the new heating system a significant reduction in the setup time is now possible and an energy reduction of about 57% was achieved.

Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Balanced and Unbalanced Adhesive Single-Lap Joints between Aluminium Adherends

The single-lap joint is the most commonly used, although it endures significant bending due to the non-collinear load path, which negatively affects its load bearing capabilities. The use of material or geometric changes is widely documented in the literature to reduce this handicap, acting by reduction of peel and shear peak stresses or alterations of the failure mechanism emerging from local modifications. In this work, the effect of using different thickness adherends on the tensile strength of single-lap joints, bonded with a ductile and brittle adhesive, was numerically and experimentally evaluated. The joints were tested under tension for different combinations of adherend thickness. The effect of the adherends thickness mismatch on the stress distributions was also investigated by Finite Elements (FE), which explained the experimental results and the strength prediction of the joints. The numerical study was made by FE and Cohesive Zone Modelling (CZM), which allowed characterizing the entire fracture process. For this purpose, a FE analysis was performed in ABAQUS® considering geometric non-linearities. In the end, a detailed comparative evaluation of unbalanced joints, commonly used in engineering applications, is presented to give an understanding on how modifications in the bonded structures thickness can influence the joint performance.