Role of abrasive material on micro-abrasion wear tests

Micro-abrasion wear tests with ball-cratering configuration are widely used. Sources of variability are already studied by different authors and conditions for testing are parameterized by BS EN 1071-6: 2007 standard which refers silicon carbide as abrasive. However, the use of other abrasives is possible and allowed. In this work, ball-cratering wear tests were performed using four different abrasive particles of three dissimilar materials: diamond, alumina and silicon carbide. Tests were carried out under the same conditions on a steel plate provided with TiB2 hard coating. For each abrasive, five different test durations were used allowing understanding the initial wear phenomena. Composition and shape of abrasive particles were investigated by SEM and EDS. Scar areas were observed by optical and electronic microscopy in order to understand the wear effects caused by each of them. Scar geometry and grooves were analyzed and compared. Wear coefficient was calculated for each situation. It was observed that diamond particles produce well-defined and circular wear scars. Different silicon carbide particles presented dissimilar results as consequence of distinct particle shape and size distribution.

Adhesion and wear behaviour of NCD coatings on Si3N4 by micro-abrasion tests

Nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) coatings offer an excellent alternative for tribological applications, preserving most of the intrinsic mechanical properties of polycrystalline CVD diamond and adding to it an extreme surface smoothness. Silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramics are reported to guarantee high adhesion levels to CVD microcrystalline diamond coatings, but the NCD adhesion to Si3N4 is not yet well established. Micro-abrasion tests are appropriate for evaluating the abrasive wear resistance of a given surface, but they also provide information on thin film/substrate interfacial resistance, i.e., film adhesion. In this study, a comparison is made between the behaviour of NCD films deposited by hot-filament chemical vapour deposition (HFCVD) and microwave plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition (MPCVD) techniques. Silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramic discs were selected as substrates. The NCD depositions by HFCVD and MPCVD were carried out using H2–CH4 and H2–CH4–N2 gas mixtures, respectively. An adequate set of growth parameters was chosen for each CVD technique, resulting in NCD films having a final thickness of 5 m. A micro-abrasion tribometer was used, with 3 m diamond grit as the abrasive slurry element. Experiments were carried out at a constant rotational speed (80 r.p.m.) and by varying the applied load in the range of 0.25–0.75 N. The wear rate for MPCVD NCD (3.7±0.8 × 10−5 m3N−1m−1) is compatible with those reported for microcrystalline CVD diamond. The HFCVD films displayed poorer adhesion to the Si3N4 ceramic substrates than the MPCVD ones. However, the HFCVD films show better wear resistance as a result of their higher crystallinity according to the UV Raman data, despite evidencing premature adhesion failure.

Influence of the abrasive particles size in the micro-abrasion wear tests of TiAlSiN thin coatings

Ball rotating micro-abrasion tribometers are commonly used to carry out wear tests on thin hard coatings. In these tests, different kinds of abrasives were used, as alumina (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) or diamond. In each kind of abrasive, several particle sizes can be used. Some studies were developed in order to evaluate the influence of the abrasive particle shape in the micro-abrasion process. Nevertheless, the particle size was not well correlated with the material removed amount and wear mechanisms. In this work, slurry of SiC abrasive in distilled water was used, with three different particles size. Initial surface topography was accessed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Coating hardness measurements were performed with a micro-hardness tester. In order to evaluate the wear behaviour, a TiAlSiN thin hard film was used. The micro-abrasion tests were carried out with some different durations. The abrasive effect of the SiC particles was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) both in the films (hard material) as in the substrate (soft material), after coating perforation. Wear grooves and removed material rate were compared and discussed.

Produção de biodiesel etílico por via enzimática a partir de óleo de milho transgénico

Mestrado em Engenharia Química

Efficient schedulability tests for real-time embedded systems with urgent routines

Task scheduling is one of the key mechanisms to ensure timeliness in embedded real-time systems. Such systems have often the need to execute not only application tasks but also some urgent routines (e.g. error-detection actions, consistency checkers, interrupt handlers) with minimum latency. Although fixed-priority schedulers such as Rate-Monotonic (RM) are in line with this need, they usually make a low processor utilization available to the system. Moreover, this availability usually decreases with the number of considered tasks. If dynamic-priority schedulers such as Earliest Deadline First (EDF) are applied instead, high system utilization can be guaranteed but the minimum latency for executing urgent routines may not be ensured. In this paper we describe a scheduling model according to which urgent routines are executed at the highest priority level and all other system tasks are scheduled by EDF. We show that the guaranteed processor utilization for the assumed scheduling model is at least as high as the one provided by RM for two tasks, namely 2(2√−1). Seven polynomial time tests for checking the system timeliness are derived and proved correct. The proposed tests are compared against each other and to an exact but exponential running time test.

Characterisation of noisy speech channels in 2G and 3G mobile networks

As the wireless cellular market reaches competitive levels never seen before, network operators need to focus on maintaining Quality of Service (QoS) a main priority if they wish to attract new subscribers while keeping existing customers satisfied. Speech Quality as perceived by the end user is one major example of a characteristic in constant need of maintenance and improvement. It is in this topic that this Master Thesis project fits in. Making use of an intrusive method of speech quality evaluation, as a means to further study and characterize the performance of speech codecs in second-generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) technologies. Trying to find further correlation between codecs with similar bit rates, along with the exploration of certain transmission parameters which may aid in the assessment of speech quality. Due to some limitations concerning the audio analyzer equipment that was to be employed, a different system for recording the test samples was sought out. Although the new designed system is not standard, after extensive testing and optimization of the system's parameters, final results were found reliable and satisfactory. Tests include a set of high and low bit rate codecs for both 2G and 3G, where values were compared and analysed, leading to the outcome that 3G speech codecs perform better, under the approximately same conditions, when compared with 2G. Reinforcing the idea that 3G is, with no doubt, the best choice if the costumer looks for the best possible listening speech quality. Regarding the transmission parameters chosen for the experiment, the Receiver Quality (RxQual) and Received Energy per Chip to the Power Density Ratio (Ec/N0), these were subject to speech quality correlation tests. Final results of RxQual were compared to those of prior studies from different researchers and, are considered to be of important relevance. Leading to the confirmation of RxQual as a reliable indicator of speech quality. As for Ec/N0, it is not possible to state it as a speech quality indicator however, it shows clear thresholds for which the MOS values decrease significantly. The studied transmission parameters show that they can be used not only for network management purposes but, at the same time, give an expected idea to the communications engineer (or technician) of the end-to-end speech quality consequences. With the conclusion of the work new ideas for future studies come to mind. Considering that the fourth-generation (4G) cellular technologies are now beginning to take an important place in the global market, as the first all-IP network structure, it seems of great relevance that 4G speech quality should be subject of evaluation. Comparing it to 3G, not only in narrowband but also adding wideband scenarios with the most recent standard objective method of speech quality assessment, POLQA. Also, new data found on Ec/N0 tests, justifies further research studies with the intention of validating the assumptions made in this work.

Desenvolvimento de coagulante/ floculante para tratamento de águas residuais numa indústria de adesivos

Esta dissertação teve como objetivo clarificar a qualidade das águas residuais de uma indústria de fabricação de adesivos. Para esta clarificação optou-se por um tratamento de coagulação/floculação a ser efetuado com a adição de apenas um produto no estado sólido. Para este estudo, selecionou-se substâncias comercialmente disponíveis destacando-se para esta formulação um coagulante, sulfato de alumínio (Al2 (SO4).3H2O, dois adjuvantes, hidróxido de cálcio, Ca(OH)2 (adjuvante H) e Montmorillonite, Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O (adjuvante M) e um floculante, uma poliacrilamida aniónica (C3H5NO)n. O efluente bruto da indústria de adesivos foi caraterizado e verificou-se que dos parâmetros analisados, apenas o pH obedece aos valores limite de emissão para descarga no coletor municipal. Determinaram-se as quantidades ótimas das substâncias selecionadas, a quantidade mínima de produto formulado e foi feita a otimização da composição do produto formulado, para três níveis de pH e duas condições de agitação Numa primeira fase, a realização de ensaios preliminares sobre a quantidade de cada uma das substâncias conduziu aos valores 5 e 30 g de coagulante, 2 e 10 g de adjuvante M; 3 g de adjuvante H e 0,01 g de floculante por 500 mL de efluente. Na otimização da quantidade mínima de produto formulado obteve-se o valor de 5g de produto por 500 mL de efluente. Relativamente à formulação do produto foi definido estudar o efeito da variação das razões, %(m/m), dos adjuvantes (M e H) em função do coagulante, para diferentes valores de pH inicial (6,2; 8,1 e 10) e para duas condições de agitação (A e B), sobre os parâmetros analisados (CQO, SST, turvação, pH final e IVL). Na condição A manteve-se uma agitação de 150 rpm durante 2 minutos, reduzindo-se para 60 rpm durante 15 minutos e, por fim, para 30 rpm durante 5 minutos. Na condição B foi usada uma agitação constante de 90 rpm durante 22 minutos. O estudo do efeito das variações das razões % (m/m) dos adjuvantes M e H foi dividido em três grupos com três subgrupos: 1º grupo - 0,6 a razão mássica adjuvante M/coagulante e 0,4, 1,2 e 2 a razão mássica adjuvante H/ coagulante; 2º grupo - 0,2 a razão mássica adjuvante M/coagulante e 0,1, 0,4 e 0,6 a razão mássica adjuvante H/ coagulante; 3º grupo - 0,1 a razão mássica adjuvante M/coagulante e 0,1, 0,2 e 0,3 a razão mássica adjuvante H/ coagulante. Após este estudo obteve-se para cada condição de agitação (A e B), as razões %(m/m) e o pH inicial mais adequados, com base nos melhores resultados obtidos no efeito sobre a CQO. Para a condição de agitação A o melhor resultado obteve-se para pH inicial igual a 8,1 com a razão mássica de adjuvante M/ coagulante igual a 0,1 e a razão mássica de adjuvante H/coagulante igual a 0,1 (percentagens de remoção de 98,01%, 99,60% e 99,43% para a CQO, SST e turvação, respetivamente). Para a condição de agitação B o melhor resultado obteve-se para pH inicial igual a 8,1 com a razão mássica de adjuvante M/ coagulante igual a 0,1 e a razão mássica de adjuvante H/coagulante igual a 0,1 (percentagens de remoção de 98,67%, 99,77% e 98,40% para a CQO, SST e turvação, respetivamente). Nestas condições é necessário efetuar a correção do pH após o tratamento. Apesar das elevadas percentagens de remoção obtidas, o índice volumétrico de lamas indica fraca qualidade de sedimentação.

Contributo da manutenção técnica de edifícios para a sustentabilidade

A manutenção, durante vários anos, traduziu-se num conceito paliativo de instalações e equipamentos, o que se veio a revelar como uma atitude negligente perante o Homem e o Ambiente. As preocupações ambientais estão na ordem do dia e têm sido muitas as vozes que se têm levantado para que o consumo de energia seja mais equilibrado e para que as emissões de CO2 diminuam de forma a preservar o Planeta. De acordo com a resolução do Conselho Europeu, em 2007 (1), foi apresentado um pacote de propostas que visam a sustentabilidade e estimulam a Eficiência Energética (EE), com o objectivo de reduzir os consumos energéticos dos edifícios, quer estes sejam novos ou reabilitados. Segundo a Direcção Geral de Energia e Geologia os edifícios são responsáveis por 60% dos consumos de energia eléctrica, consumo esse que pode ser reduzido em mais de 50%, através de medidas de EE, traduzindo-se numa redução de 400 milhões de toneladas de CO2 por ano. (2) Para além de medidas de EE, também as práticas de manutenção preventiva podem contribuir para a diminuição dos consumos energéticos e de emissões de CO2. Segundo o Institute for Building Efficiency práticas de manutenção preventiva em equipamentos de Aquecimento Ventilação e Ar Condicionado (AVAC) reduzem os consumos energéticos de 10 a 20% e, em contrapartida, a negligência na execução da manutenção pode aumentar os consumos energéticos de 30 a 60%. (3) Uma outra análise de valores a ter em conta, é a Intensidade Energética (IE). Leia-se IE como sendo o valor global da energia consumida num país a dividir pelo seu produto interno bruto. A contribuição do sector dos serviços para a IE nacional era de 17% no ano de 2005. (4) Se a estes dados acrescentarmos que 70% dessa energia é consumida por equipamentos AVAC (5) e que práticas de manutenção reduzem esses valores entre 10 a 20%, pode concluir-se que a redução de custos energéticos associada à manutenção preventiva é efectiva e significativa. Apresentando um cenário ideal e hipotético, se ao contributo do sector dos serviços, para a IE nacional, se isolar o valor referente a equipamentos de AVAC, obtem-se uma IE de aproximadamente 12%. Se adicionalmente se considerar uma taxa de redução, relativa à execução da manutenção, entre 10 e 20%, Portugal obteria uma IE, relativamente aos consumos energéticos em edificios de serviços, não de 17% mas sim entre 14,6% e 15,8%. Neste trabalho pretende-se comprovar que um plano de actividades de manutenção equilibrado, monitorizado, e gerido de forma eficaz e funcional, é uma ferramenta fundamental no cumprimento de objectivos e metas europeias traçadas, que se reúnem num objectivo comum de preservação do planeta. A adopção deste tipo de medidas contribuirá para a racionalização dos consumos energéticos e para o aumento da vida útil dos equipamentos, bem como para a melhoria do desempenho económico e financeiro das organizações, tal como se poderá ler mais à frente neste trabalho. Será também analisado um caso prático, verificando a eficácia das medidas tomadas durante as intervenções preventivas de manutenção, sendo que para isso será estudado o comportamento de um equipamento, antes e após a realização de tarefas de manutenção preventiva. Tentar-se-á, junto de gestores de edifícios, recolher a opinião que têm sobre a importância da manutenção. Ao longo de toda a pesquisa foi possível consolidar a hipótese formulada inicialmente no que concerne ao contributo da manutenção para a sustentabilidade, quer através da revisão da literatura, quer nos testes efectuados a equipamentos. Foi possível confirmar que um plano de manutenção ajustado, monitorizado e cumprido é uma ferramenta na diminuição dos consumos energéticos, aumento da vida útil de equipamentos e por sua vez na diminuição de emissões de CO2. Verificou-se também que o controlo de poluentes e ventilação adequada dos edifícios são uma ferramenta essencial para a qualidade do ar interior, parâmetros facilmente controlados nas actividades de manutenção. O contributo das opiniões recolhidas entre os gestores de edifícios, para este estudo, foi também bastante importante, uma vez que todos eles reconhecem o papel importante da manutenção, mas nem todos estão sensibilizados para o seu papel na sustentabilidade do planeta. Nesta dissertação é deixado um alerta: o crescimento da população mundial e a consequente utilização de recursos naturais que são finitos, não sendo controlado de uma forma sustentada, pode resultar na destruição de um planeta único. O papel negativo do Homem nas alterações climáticas é inequívoco e é necessário melhorar a sua relação com o Ambiente. Cada ser humano está inserido na sua comunidade e dentro dela tem a sua função, cabe a cada um exercer esta responsabilidade nas suas actividades do dia-a-dia.

RuSe Electrocatalysts and Single Wall Carbon Nanohorns Supports for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction

Selenium modified ruthenium electrocatalysts supported on carbon black were synthesized using NaBH4 reduction of the metal precursor. Prepared Ru/C electrocatalysts showed high dispersion and very small averaged particle size. These Ru/C electrocatalysts were subsequently modified with Se following two procedures: (a) preformed Ru/carbon catalyst was mixed with SeO2 in xylene and reduced in H2 and (b) Ru metal precursor was mixed with SeO2 followed by reduction with NaBH4. The XRD patterns indicate that a pyrite-type structure was obtained at higher annealing temperatures, regardless of the Ru:Se molar ratio used in the preparation step. A pyrite-type structure also emerged in samples that were not calcined; however, in this case, the pyrite-type structure was only prominent for samples with higher Ru:Se ratios. The characterization of the RuSe/C electrocatalysts suggested that the Se in noncalcined samples was present mainly as an amorphous skin. Preliminary study of activity toward oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) using electrocatalysts with a Ru:Se ratio of 1:0.7 indicated that annealing after modification with Se had a detrimental effect on their activity. This result could be related to the increased particle size of crystalline RuSe2 in heat-treated samples. Higher activity of not annealed RuSe/C catalysts could also be a result of the structure containing amorphous Se skin on the Ru crystal. The electrode obtained using not calcined RuSe showed a very promising performance with a slightly lower activity and higher overpotential in comparison with a commercial Pt/C electrode. Single wall carbon nanohorns (SWNH) were considered for application as ORR electrocatalysts' supports. The characterization of SWNH was carried out regarding their tolerance toward strong catalyzed corrosion conditions. Tests indicated that SWNH have a three times higher electrochemical surface area (ESA) loss than carbon black or Pt commercial electrodes.

Protein–polyphenol interaction on silica beads for astringency tests based on eye, photography or reflectance detection modes

Astringency is an organoleptic property of beverages and food products resulting mainly from the interaction of salivary proteins with dietary polyphenols. It is of great importance to consumers, but the only effective way of measuring it involves trained sensorial panellists, providing subjective and expensive responses. Concurrent chemical evaluations try to screen food astringency, by means of polyphenol and protein precipitation procedures, but these are far from the real human astringency sensation where not all polyphenol–protein interactions lead to the occurrence of precipitate. Here, a novel chemical approach that tries to mimic protein–polyphenol interactions in the mouth is presented to evaluate astringency. A protein, acting as a salivary protein, is attached to a solid support to which the polyphenol binds (just as happens when drinking wine), with subsequent colour alteration that is fully independent from the occurrence of precipitate. Employing this simple concept, Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) was selected as the model salivary protein and used to cover the surface of silica beads. Tannic Acid (TA), employed as the model polyphenol, was allowed to interact with the BSA on the silica support and its adsorption to the protein was detected by reaction with Fe(III) and subsequent colour development. Quantitative data of TA in the samples were extracted by colorimetric or reflectance studies over the solid materials. The analysis was done by taking a regular picture with a digital camera, opening the image file in common software and extracting the colour coordinates from HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness) and RGB (Red, Green, Blue) colour model systems; linear ranges were observed from 10.6 to 106.0 μmol L−1. The latter was based on the Kubelka–Munk response, showing a linear gain with concentrations from 0.3 to 10.5 μmol L−1. In either of these two approaches, semi-quantitative estimation of TA was enabled by direct eye comparison. The correlation between the levels of adsorbed TA and the astringency of beverages was tested by using the assay to check the astringency of wines and comparing these to the response of sensorial panellists. Results of the two methods correlated well. The proposed sensor has significant potential as a robust tool for the quantitative/semi-quantitative evaluation of astringency in wine.

E-assessment in mathematics courses with multiple-choice questions tests

With the implementation of the Bologna Process several challenges have been posed to higher education institution, particularly in Portugal. One of the main implications is related to the change of the paradigm of a teacher centered education, to a paradigm that is student centered. This change implies the change of the way to assess courses in higher education institutions. Continuous and formative assessments emerged as the focus, catalyzed by electronic assessment, or e-assessment. This paper presents a case of the implementation of an e-assessment strategy, implemented in order to allow continuous, formative assessment in numerous mathematics classes using multiple-choice questions tests implement in Moodle open-source learning management system. The implementation can be considered a success.

E-assessment in mathematics courses with multiple-choice questions tests

With the implementation of the Bologna Process several challenges have been posed to higher education institution, particularly in Portugal. One of the main implications is related to the change of the paradigm of a teacher centered education, to a paradigm that is student centered. This change implies the change of the way to assess courses in higher education institutions. Continuous and formative assessments emerged as the focus, catalyzed by electronic assessment, or e-assessment. This paper presents a case of the implementation of an e-assessment strategy, implemented in order to allow continuous, formative assessment in numerous mathematics classes using multiple-choice questions tests implement in Moodle open-source learning management system. The implementation can be considered a success.

Energy Harvesting for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles

In this study, energy production for autonomous underwater vehicles is investigated. This project is part of a bigger project called TURTLE. The autonomous vehicles perform oceanic researches at seabed for which they are intended to be kept operational underwater for several months. In order to ful l a long-term underwater condition, powerful batteries are combined with \micro- scale" energy production on the spot. This work tends to develop a system that generates power up to a maximum of 30 W. Latter energy harvesting structure consists basically of a turbine combined with a generator and low-power electronics to adjust the achieved voltage to a required battery charger voltage. Every component is examined separately hence an optimum can be de ned for all, and subsequently also an overall optimum. Di erent design parameters as e.g. number of blades, solidity ratio and cross-section area are compared for di erent turbines, in order to see what is the most feasible type. Further, a generator is chosen by studying how ux distributions might be adjusted to low velocities, and how cogging torque can be excluded by adapted designs. Low-power electronics are con gured in order to convert and stabilize heavily varying three-phase voltages to a constant, recti ed voltage which is usable for battery storage. Clearly, di erent component parameters as maximum power and torque are matched here to increase the overall power generation. Furthermore an overall maximum power is set up for achieving a maximum power ow at load side. Due to among others typical low velocities of about 0.1 to 0.5 m/s, and constructing limits of the prototype, the vast range of components is restricted to only a few that could be used. Hence, a helical turbine is combined in a direct drive mode to a coreless-stator axial- ux permanent-magnet generator, from which the output voltage is adjusted subsequently by a recti er, impedance matching unit, upconverter circuit and an overall control unit to regulate di erent component parameters. All these electronics are combined in a closed-loop design to involve positive feedback signals. Furthermore a theoretical con guration for the TURTLE vehicle is described in this work and a solution is proposed that might be implemented, for which several design tests are performable in a future study.

Structural adhesives modified with thermally expandable particles

In this study, the behaviour of two structural adhesives modified with thermally expandable particles (TEPs) was investigated as a preliminary study for further investigations on the potential of TEPs in adhesive joints. Tensile bulk tests were performed to get the tensile properties of the adhesives and TEPs-modified adhesives. In order to determine the expansion temperature of the particles while encapsulated in these particular adhesive systems, the variation of the volume of adhesive samples modified with different TEPs concentration as a function of temperature was measured. Further, the possibility of any chemical interactions between TEPs and adhesives matrix in the TEPs-modified specimens was verified by a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. Finally, the fracture surfaces of the unmodified and TEPs-modified specimens, as well as the dispersion and the morphology of the particles, were examined by a scanning electron microscopy analysis. It was found that the stiffness of the TEPs-modified adhesives is not affected by incorporation of TEPs in the adhesives matrix, while the tensile yield strength decreased by increasing the wt% TEPs content. In applications of such particular materials (TEPs-modified adhesives), the temperature should be controlled to stay between 90°C and 120°C in order to obtain the highest expansion ratio. At a lower temperature, not all the particles will expand, and above, the TEPs will deteriorate and as a result the TEPs-modified adhesives will deteriorate.

Produção de biodiesel a partir de pastas de gordura e resíduo de glicerol

O principal objectivo deste trabalho consistiu na produção de biodiesel a partir de resíduos fornecidos pela Empresa SOCIPOLE, S.A. Esta, forneceu, pastas de gordura (depósito formado nos óleos usados), só aproveitadas pela empresa para a produção de sabões, e resíduo de glicerol proveniente da produção de biodiesel. Com as pastas de gordura, foi feito um estudo onde se variaram alguns parâmetros, tais como: o tipo de reactor, catalisador, temperatura, agitação, tempo de reacção, razão molar gordura:metanol e condições de secagem. O estudo mais pormenorizado foi efectuado com o NaOH, como catalisador. Foram feitos vários ensaios para os tempos de reacção de 30minutos, 1hora e 2horas, a 65ºC e razão molar gordura:metanol 1:6, tendo-se obtido respectivamente 86,7; 88,1 e 87,5% para o teor de ésteres. No caso da resina catiónica forte como catalisador, aparentemente não houve reacção ao fim de 12h, enquanto no ensaio que utilizou o ácido sulfúrico, o teor de ésteres foi de 82,6%, ao fim de 12h com razão molar gordura:metanol igual a 1:11. Quanto à produção de biodiesel a partir do resíduo de ácidos gordos resultante da purificação do resíduo de glicerol, foi feito um estudo preliminar usando diferentes catalisadores, uma resina catiónica forte, ácido sulfúrico e zircónia sulfatada. Este resíduo continha cerca de 60% de ácidos gordos e aproximadamente 39% de ésteres metílicos. Dos três catalisadores usados, o que permitiu obter maior teor de ésteres foi a zircónia sulfatada, tendo-se obtido 82,9% trabalhando a 60ºC durante 18horas com agitação de 230rpm e razão molar ácidos gordos:metanol de 1:12 . O ensaio em que se obteve menor percentagem de ésteres (56,4%) foi com resina catiónica. Com as duas matérias-primas obteve-se sempre um teor de ésteres, no produto final, abaixo dos 96,5% estabelecidos pela Norma Europeia EN 14103. Estes resultados reflectem provavelmente a composição complexa das matérias-primas. As pastas de gordura podem conter compostos não esterificáveis, solúveis no biodiesel, ou mais dificilmente esterificáveis nas condições operacionais usadas. Já o resíduo de ácidos gordos apresenta uma cor escura o que indica a existência de compostos corados, talvez polímeros. Portanto, para se tirar conclusões fundamentadas é necessário fazer análises mais completas das pastas de gordura e do resíduo de ácidos gordos, assim como ao biodiesel produzido de forma a identificar as possíveis contaminações existentes nos produtos com esta proveniência.