Uniformidade de massa no fraccionamento de comprimidos de varfarina

Apesar da importância reconhecida da dispensa de medicamentos em unidose a nível hospitalar, em determinadas situações as apresentações comerciais disponíveis não oferecem alternativa à terapêutica desejada. Deste modo, surge por parte dos Serviços Farmacêuticos Hospitalares a necessidade de proceder à manipulação de alguns medicamentos. Uma dessas situações prende-se com a necessidade de fraccionamento de algumas formas orais sólidas. Todavia, embora o fraccionamento de comprimidos seja uma prática frequente, não só para obter doses não comercializadas como também para permitir titular o regime posológico ou facilitar a deglutição, este nem sempre é recomendável. Um dos problemas associados ao fraccionamento de comprimidos prende-se com as perdas com possam ocorrer durante o processo, levando a que a dosagem efectivamente dispensada não seja coincidente com a efectivamente esperada. Segundo a Farmacopeia Portuguesa (FP VIII), em comprimidos com massa até 80 mg, após pesagem de 20 unidades e determinação do seu peso médio, não mais de 2 unidades podem afastar-se 10% do peso médio e nenhuma unidade se pode afastar mais de 20%. Assim sendo, tal condição assume particular importância quando se procede ao fraccionamento de medicamentos contendo fármacos com margem terapêutica estreita. Um desses casos associa-se à varfarina. Usada como anticoagulante oral, a varfarina é comercializada em comprimidos com uma dosagem de 5 mg. A sua dose inicial em adultos é habitualmente de 10 mg diários durante dois dias, sendo a dose de manutenção dependente do tempo de protrombina. Deste modo, a dose de manutenção pode alcançar dosagens não comercializadas, tais como 1,25 mg e 2,5 mg. No Centro Hospitalar de São João, EPE, o fraccionamento de comprimidos de varfarina 5 mg tem constituído uma prática frequente, com cerca de 132 unidades fraccionadas a 2,5 mg e 20 unidades fraccionadas a 1,25 mg, durante o ano de 2010. Todavia, a falta de estudos publicados que comprovem a segurança da uniformidade de massa após o fraccionamento deste medicamento colocam ainda algumas questões. Este trabalho pretende assim avaliar a uniformidade das fracções obtidas após fraccionamento dos comprimidos de varfarina, com o intuito de conhecer se estes se encontram dentro dos parâmetros estabelecidos pela FP VIII.

Water quality issues in rivers, lakes and reservoirs in Asian countries: an approach to the problems and the methodologies

Water covers over 70% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. But only 3% of the Earth's water is fresh water, and less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, reservoirs and the atmosphere. However, rivers and lakes are an important part of fresh surface water, amounting to about 89%. In this Master Thesis dissertation, the focus is on three types of water bodies – rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and their water quality issues in Asian countries. The surface water quality in a region is largely determined both by the natural processes such as climate or geographic conditions, and the anthropogenic influences such as industrial and agricultural activities or land use conversion. The quality of the water can be affected by pollutants discharge from a specific point through a sewer pipe and also by extensive drainage from agriculture/urban areas and within basin. Hence, water pollutant sources can be divided into two categories: Point source pollution and Non-point source (NPS) pollution. Seasonal variations in precipitation and surface run-off have a strong effect on river discharge and the concentration of pollutants in water bodies. For example, in the rainy season, heavy and persistent rain wash off the ground, the runoff flow increases and may contain various kinds of pollutants and, eventually, enters the water bodies. In some cases, especially in confined water bodies, the quality may be positive related with rainfall in the wet season, because this confined type of fresh water systems allows high dilution of pollutants, decreasing their possible impacts. During the dry season, the quality of water is largely related to industrialization and urbanization pollution. The aim of this study is to identify the most common water quality problems in Asian countries and to enumerate and analyze the methodologies used for assessment of water quality conditions of both rivers and confined water bodies (lakes and reservoirs). Based on the evaluation of a sample of 57 papers, dated between 2000 and 2012, it was found that over the past decade, the water quality of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in developing countries is being degraded. Water pollution and destruction of aquatic ecosystems have caused massive damage to the functions and integrity of water resources. The most widespread NPS in Asian countries and those which have the greatest spatial impacts are urban runoff and agriculture. Locally, mine waste runoff and rice paddy are serious NPS problems. The most relevant point pollution sources are the effluents from factories, sewage treatment plant, and public or household facilities. It was found that the most used methodology was unquestionably the monitoring activity, used in 49 of analyzed studies, accounting for 86%. Sometimes, data from historical databases were used as well. It can be seen that taking samples from the water body and then carry on laboratory work (chemical analyses) is important because it can give an understanding of the water quality. 6 papers (11%) used a method that combined monitoring data and modeling. 6 papers (11%) just applied a model to estimate the quality of water. Modeling is a useful resource when there is limited budget since some models are of free download and use. In particular, several of used models come from the U.S.A, but they have their own purposes and features, meaning that a careful application of the models to other countries and a critical discussion of the results are crucial. 5 papers (9%) focus on a method combining monitoring data and statistical analysis. When there is a huge data matrix, the researchers need an efficient way of interpretation of the information which is provided by statistics. 3 papers (5%) used a method combining monitoring data, statistical analysis and modeling. These different methods are all valuable to evaluate the water quality. It was also found that the evaluation of water quality was made as well by using other types of sampling different than water itself, and they also provide useful information to understand the condition of the water body. These additional monitoring activities are: Air sampling, sediment sampling, phytoplankton sampling and aquatic animal tissues sampling. Despite considerable progress in developing and applying control regulations to point and NPS pollution, the pollution status of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in Asian countries is not improving. In fact, this reflects the slow pace of investment in new infrastructure for pollution control and growing population pressures. Water laws or regulations and public involvement in enforcement can play a constructive and indispensable role in environmental protection. In the near future, in order to protect water from further contamination, rapid action is highly needed to control the various kinds of effluents in one region. Environmental remediation and treatment of industrial effluent and municipal wastewaters is essential. It is also important to prevent the direct input of agricultural and mine site runoff. Finally, stricter environmental regulation for water quality is required to support protection and management strategies. It would have been possible to get further information based in the 57 sample of papers. For instance, it would have been interesting to compare the level of concentrations of some pollutants in the diferente Asian countries. However the limit of three months duration for this study prevented further work to take place. In spite of this, the study objectives were achieved: the work provided an overview of the most relevant water quality problems in rivers, lakes and reservoirs in Asian countries, and also listed and analyzed the most common methodologies.

O gabinete de heráldica do exército e as armas da Junta de Freguesia de Verderena

O processo de ordenação de armas para a Junta de Freguesia da Verderena, a participação do Gabinete de Heráldica do Exército e a intervenção da Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses.

Water quality in lakes and reservoirs in China

Dissertation elaborated for the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master Degree in Civil Engineering in the Speciality Area of Hydarulics

O gabinete de heráldica do exército e as armas da junta de freguesia da Verderena

É historiada e analisada a criação de armas para a Junta de Freguesia da Verderena a partir da colaboração do Gabinete de Heráldica do Exército e avaliada a intervenção da Secção de Heráldica da Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses.