Water quality issues in rivers, lakes and reservoirs in Asian countries: an approach to the problems and the methodologies

Water covers over 70% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. But only 3% of the Earth's water is fresh water, and less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, reservoirs and the atmosphere. However, rivers and lakes are an important part of fresh surface water, amounting to about 89%. In this Master Thesis dissertation, the focus is on three types of water bodies – rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and their water quality issues in Asian countries. The surface water quality in a region is largely determined both by the natural processes such as climate or geographic conditions, and the anthropogenic influences such as industrial and agricultural activities or land use conversion. The quality of the water can be affected by pollutants discharge from a specific point through a sewer pipe and also by extensive drainage from agriculture/urban areas and within basin. Hence, water pollutant sources can be divided into two categories: Point source pollution and Non-point source (NPS) pollution. Seasonal variations in precipitation and surface run-off have a strong effect on river discharge and the concentration of pollutants in water bodies. For example, in the rainy season, heavy and persistent rain wash off the ground, the runoff flow increases and may contain various kinds of pollutants and, eventually, enters the water bodies. In some cases, especially in confined water bodies, the quality may be positive related with rainfall in the wet season, because this confined type of fresh water systems allows high dilution of pollutants, decreasing their possible impacts. During the dry season, the quality of water is largely related to industrialization and urbanization pollution. The aim of this study is to identify the most common water quality problems in Asian countries and to enumerate and analyze the methodologies used for assessment of water quality conditions of both rivers and confined water bodies (lakes and reservoirs). Based on the evaluation of a sample of 57 papers, dated between 2000 and 2012, it was found that over the past decade, the water quality of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in developing countries is being degraded. Water pollution and destruction of aquatic ecosystems have caused massive damage to the functions and integrity of water resources. The most widespread NPS in Asian countries and those which have the greatest spatial impacts are urban runoff and agriculture. Locally, mine waste runoff and rice paddy are serious NPS problems. The most relevant point pollution sources are the effluents from factories, sewage treatment plant, and public or household facilities. It was found that the most used methodology was unquestionably the monitoring activity, used in 49 of analyzed studies, accounting for 86%. Sometimes, data from historical databases were used as well. It can be seen that taking samples from the water body and then carry on laboratory work (chemical analyses) is important because it can give an understanding of the water quality. 6 papers (11%) used a method that combined monitoring data and modeling. 6 papers (11%) just applied a model to estimate the quality of water. Modeling is a useful resource when there is limited budget since some models are of free download and use. In particular, several of used models come from the U.S.A, but they have their own purposes and features, meaning that a careful application of the models to other countries and a critical discussion of the results are crucial. 5 papers (9%) focus on a method combining monitoring data and statistical analysis. When there is a huge data matrix, the researchers need an efficient way of interpretation of the information which is provided by statistics. 3 papers (5%) used a method combining monitoring data, statistical analysis and modeling. These different methods are all valuable to evaluate the water quality. It was also found that the evaluation of water quality was made as well by using other types of sampling different than water itself, and they also provide useful information to understand the condition of the water body. These additional monitoring activities are: Air sampling, sediment sampling, phytoplankton sampling and aquatic animal tissues sampling. Despite considerable progress in developing and applying control regulations to point and NPS pollution, the pollution status of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in Asian countries is not improving. In fact, this reflects the slow pace of investment in new infrastructure for pollution control and growing population pressures. Water laws or regulations and public involvement in enforcement can play a constructive and indispensable role in environmental protection. In the near future, in order to protect water from further contamination, rapid action is highly needed to control the various kinds of effluents in one region. Environmental remediation and treatment of industrial effluent and municipal wastewaters is essential. It is also important to prevent the direct input of agricultural and mine site runoff. Finally, stricter environmental regulation for water quality is required to support protection and management strategies. It would have been possible to get further information based in the 57 sample of papers. For instance, it would have been interesting to compare the level of concentrations of some pollutants in the diferente Asian countries. However the limit of three months duration for this study prevented further work to take place. In spite of this, the study objectives were achieved: the work provided an overview of the most relevant water quality problems in rivers, lakes and reservoirs in Asian countries, and also listed and analyzed the most common methodologies.

Evaluation of staining techniques on the results of micronucleus in exfoliated oral mucosa cells

Micronuclei (MN) in exfoliated epithelial cells are widely used as biomarkers of cancer risk in humans. MN are classified as biomarkers of the break age and loss of chromosomes. They are small, extra nuclear bodies that arise in dividing cells from centric chromosome/chromatid fragments or whole chromosomes/chromatids that lag behind in anaphase and are not included in the daughter nuclei in telophase. Buccal mucosa cells have been used in biomonitoring exposed populations because these cells are in the direct route of exposure to ingested pollutant, are capable of metabolizing proximate carcinogens to reactive chemicals, and are easily and rapidly collected by brushing the buccal mucosa. The objective of the present study was to further investigate if, and to what extent, different stains have an effect on the results of micronuclei studies in exfoliated cells. These techniques are: Papanicolaou (PAP), Modified Papanicolaou, May-Grünwald Giemsa (MGG), Giemsa, Harris’s Hematoxylin, Feulgen with Fast Green counterstain and Feulgen without counterstain.

Analysis of constructed wetland performance for irrigation reuse

Most of the wastewater treatment systems in small rural communities of the Cova da Beira region (Portugal) consist of constructed wetlands (CW) with horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF). It is believed that those systems allow the compliance of discharge standards as well as the production of final effluents with suitability for reuse. Results obtained in a nine-month campaign in an HSSF bed pointed out that COD and TSS removal were lower than expected. A discrete sampling also showed that removal of TC, FC and HE was not enough to fulfill international irrigation goals. However, the bed had a very good response to variation of incoming nitrogen loads presenting high removal of nitrogen forms. A good correlation between mass load and mass removal rate was observed for BOD5, COD, TN, NH4-N, TP and TSS, which shows a satisfactory response of the bed to the variable incoming loads. The entrance of excessive loads of organic matter and solids contributed for the decrease of the effective volume for pollutant uptake and therefore, may have negatively influenced the treatment capability. Primary treatment should be improved in order to decrease the variation of incoming organic and solid loads and to improve the removal of COD, solids and pathogenic. The final effluent presented good physical-chemical quality to be reused for irrigation, which is the most likely application in the area.

Formaldeído em habitações domésticas: contaminação ambiental e potenciais fontes

Do ponto de vista das preocupações de saúde, os níveis de contaminação do ar interior assumem actualmente uma elevada importância quando se tem em consideração que as pessoas passam a maior parte do seu tempo no interior de edifícios. Neste contexto, o formaldeído é um dos poluentes mais preocupantes e, inclusivamente, os resultados de concentração obtidos em habitações do espaço Europeu foram considerados preocupantes devido ao facto de estarem relacionados com efeitos negativos para a saúde. O estudo exploratório desenvolvido pretendeu disponibilizar informação acerca das concentrações de formaldeído existentes em habitações domésticas portuguesas. Estudou‑se a presença de formaldeído em habitações novas e habitações domésticas com ocupação, abrangendo 6 unidades de cada um dos tipos considerados. Para a avaliação ambiental foi utilizado um equipamento de leitura direta que deteta as concentrações de formaldeído por fotoionização com uma lâmpada de 11,7 eV. A temperatura ambiente e a humidade relativa foram igualmente medidas, de acordo com o estipulado na Norma Internacional ISO 7726:1998. No caso das habitações novas foram registados valores de concentração superiores a 0,08 ppm em 3 das unidades estudadas. Por outro lado, em 4 das habitações com ocupação foram obtidos valores superiores a 0,08 ppm. O desenvolvimento deste estudo permitiu reconhecer algumas das possíveis fontes emissoras e os factores que influenciam as concentrações de formaldeído nas habitações em Portugal. ABSTRACT - Nowadays, indoor air contamination is considering an important health issue considering that people spend most of their time indoors. In this context, formaldehyde is a pollutant of major concern and, recently, concentration results obtained in European dwellings reveal high concentrations and values related with negative health effects in occupants. The present exploratory study sought to provide information about formaldehyde concentrations in Portuguese dwellings. It was studied formaldehyde presence in new dwellings and dwellings with occupation and included 6 units of each setting. For concentrations measure, it was used a direct‑reading equipment that detects formaldehyde concentration by photoionization. Temperature and relative humidity were also measured in accordance with International Standard ISO 7726:1998. In the case of new dwellings, in 3 units concentration values were higher than 0.08 ppm. In addition, in 4 units of the 6 dwellings with occupation, concentrations higher than this reference value were obtained. The development of this study permitted to recognize some of the possible indoors emissions sources and to define several of the preventive measures that can be applied.

Formaldehyde in indoor air: a public health problem?

Formaldehyde was the first air pollutant, which already in the 1970s emerged as a specifically non-industrial indoor air quality problem. Yet formaldehyde remained an indoor air quality issue and the formaldehyde level in residential indoor air is among the highest of any indoor air contaminant. Formaldehyde concentrations in 4 different indoor settings (schools, office buildings, new dwellings and occupied dwellings) in Portugal were measured using Photo Ionization Detection (PID) equipment (11,7 eV lamps). All the settings presented results higher than the reference value proposed by Portuguese legislation. Furthermore, occupied dwellings showed 3 units with results above the reference. We could conclude that formaldehyde presence is a reality in monitored indoor settings. Concentration levels are higher than the Portuguese reference value for indoor settings and these can indicate health problems for occupants.

Nanofiltration of surface water for the removal of endocrine disruptors

The assessment of surface water nanofiltration (NF) for the removal of endocrine disruptors (EDs) Nonylphenol Ethoxylate (IGEPAL), 4-Nonylphenol (NP) and 4-Octylphenol (OP) was carried out with three commercial NF membranes - NF90, NF200, NF270. The permeation experiments were conducted in laboratory flat-cell units of 13.2 x 10(-4) m(2) of surface area and in a DSS Lab-unit M20 with a membrane surface area of 0.036 m2. The membranes hydraulic permeabilities ranged from 3.7 to 15.6 kg/h/m(2)/bar and the rejection coefficients to NaCl, Na2SO4 and Glucose are for NF90: 97%, 99% and 97%, respectively; for NF200: 66%, 98% and 90%, respectively and for NF270: 48%, 94% and 84%, respectively. Three sets of nanofiltration experiments were carried out: i) NF of aqueous model solutions of NP, IGEPAL and OP running in total recirculation mode; ii) NF of surface water from Rio Sado (Settibal, Portugal) running in concentration mode; iii) NF of surface water from Rio Sado inoculated with NP, IGEPAL and OP running in concentration mode. The results of model solutions experiments showed that the EDs rejection coefficients are approximately 100% for all the membranes. The results obtained for the surface water showed that the rejection coefficients to natural organic Matter (NOM) are 94%, 82% and 78% for NF90, NF200 and NF 270 membranes respectively, with and without inoculation of EDs. The rejection coefficients to EDs in surface water with and without inoculation of EDs are 100%, showing that there is a fraction of NOM of high molecular weight that retains the EDs in the concentrate and that there is a fraction of NOM of low molecular weight that permeates through the NF membranes free of EDs.

Toxicidade a cianobactérias: impacte potencial na saúde pública em populações de Portugal e Brasil

Como recurso natural fundamental à vida, a água e os ecossistemas aquáticos devem ser alvo de avaliação contínua, no que se reporta à sua qualidade física, química e biológica. Segundo a Organização Mundial de Saúde cerca de 1,1 biliões de pessoas estão impossibilitadas em aceder a qualquer tipo de água potável e, as populações residentes nas proximidades de rios, lagoas, e reservatórios utilizam estas águas para as suas necessidades de consumo, aumentando o risco de transmissão de doenças. Enquanto constituintes da comunidade fitoplanctónica, as cianobactérias são microrganismos procariotas, fotossintéticos, que obtêm os nutrientes diretamente da coluna de água e, um aumento da concentração de nutrientes (principalmente azoto e fósforo), associado a condições ambientais favoráveis, pode desencadear um crescimento rápido originando fluorescências. Sob determinadas condições as cianobactérias podem produzir toxinas existindo registos que evidenciam que fluorescências toxicas são responsáveis pelo envenenamento agudo e morte de animais e humanos pelo que, a água utilizada para consumo humano deverá ser regularmente monitorizada para este elemento biológico. O objetivo deste estudo é relacionar a ocorrência de fluorescências de cianobactérias (> 2000 cel/ml) e toxicidade associada, com o impacte potencial na Saúde Pública avaliado através do consumo direto ou indireto da água. Em Portugal foram selecionados oito reservatórios situados na região Sul, pertencentes às bacias hidrográficas do Sado e Guadiana e estudados entre 2000 e 2008. No Brasil foram selecionados os reservatórios de Três Marias (Estado de Minas Gerais) e de Tucuruí (Estado do Pará) e estudados em 2005 e 2006 respetivamente. Os reservatórios foram caracterizados em termos físicos e químicos, tendo-se igualmente procedido à caracterização da comunidade fitoplanctónica através da identificação e quantificação dos principais grupos presentes em diferentes épocas do ano. Em termos fitoplanctónicos os reservatórios portugueses apresentaram maior diversidade,verificando-se contudo dominância das cianobactérias na comunidade. Associados a fluorescências, foram registados nestes reservatórios géneros produtores de hepato e neurotoxinas como Aphanizomenon sp, Microcystis aeruginosa e Oscillatoria sp. No Brasil, em situação de fluorescências, os géneros produtores de neuro e hepatotoxinas foram Microcystis (> 350.000 cels/ml) e Cylindrospermopsis. A presença destes géneros, poderá constituir um risco potencial para a saúde pública, pelo que é importante a implementação de medidas de mitigação em todos os reservatórios objeto de estudo, devendo essa atuação passar pelo controle do estado trófico no sentido de evitar o desenvolvimento de fluorescências. Assim sugere-se a implementação de um tratamento adequado para a produção de água de consumo e a organização de ações de sensibilização e aviso e informação às populações que utilizam os reservatórios em Portugal e no Brasil para diversos usos. - ABSTRACT - As a life fundamental natural resource, water and aquatic ecosystems must be continuously evaluated in their physical, chemical and biological quality. According World Health Organization, 1.1 billion people has no chance to access any kind of potable water. Populations living near rivers, lagoons or reservoirs use those waters to content their needs, increasing risks disease transmission. As members of phytoplankton community, cyanobacteria are prokaryotic, photosynthetic microorganisms and get its nutrients directly from water column. The increase of this nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus) associated with favorable environment conditions, can support a sudden grow and instigate blooms. Under specific conditions cyanobacteria can produce toxins and several records have shown that toxic blooms are responsible by acute poisoning and death in animals and humans so, water for human consumption must be regularly surveyed for this biologic element. The aim of this study is to correlate Cyanobacteria blooms (>2.000cels/ml) and connected toxicity with public health impact, evaluated through water consumption. In Portugal, eight reservoirs located in the South region were selected and study between 2000 and 2008. In Brazil, Três Marias reservoir (Minas Gerais Provence) and Tucuruí (Pará Provence) were selected and study in 2005 and 2006. Reservoirs were characterized in physical and chemical aspects, as well as phytoplankton community, through identification and counting of main present groups along study period. In bloom circumstances, liver toxins and neurotoxins producers like Aphanizomenon sp, Microcystis aeruginosa and Oscillatoria sp. were founded in Portuguese reservoirs. In Brazil, cyanobacteria genera involved in toxic bloom were Microcystis (> 350.000 cels/ml) and Cylindrospermopsis. This genera presence represents a potential risk for public health, and show the requirement to implement mitigation measures in all study reservoirs. These measures can be represented by water eutrophication control to avoid blooms, by appropriate treatments of water to human consumption, and public warnings or information to dose people in Portugal and Brazil that use these reservoirs to several activities.

Cork industry wastewater partition by ultra/nanofiltration: A biodegradation and valorisation study

Wastewater from cork processing industry present high levels of organic and phenolic compounds, such as tannins, with a low biodegradability and a significant toxicity. These compounds are not readily removed by conventional municipal wastewater treatment, which is largely based on primary sedimentation followed by biological treatment. The purpose of this work is to study the biodegradability of different cork wastewater fractions, obtained through membrane separation, in order to assess its potential for biological treatment and having in view its valorisation through tannins recovery, which could be applied in other industries. Various ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes where used, with molecular weight cut-offs (MWCO) ranging from 0.125 to 91 kDa. The wastewater and the different permeated fractions were analyzed in terms of Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Phenols (TP), Tannins, Color, pH and Conductivity. Results for the wastewater shown that it is characterized by a high organic content (670.5-1056.8 mg TOC/L, 2285-2604 mg COD/L, 1000-1225 mg BOD/L), a relatively low biodegradability (0.35-0.38 for BODs/COD and 0.44-0.47 for BOD20/COD) and a high content of phenols (360-410 mg tannic acid/L) and tannins (250-270 mg tannic acid/L). The results for the wastewater fractions shown a general decrease on the pollutant content of permeates, and an increase of its biodegradability, with the decrease of the membrane MWCO applied. Particularly, the permeated fraction from the membrane MWCO of 3.8 kDa, presented a favourable index of biodegradability (0.8) and a minimized phenols toxicity that enables it to undergo a biological treatment and so, to be treated in a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Also, within the perspective of valorisation, the rejected fraction obtained through this membrane MWCO may have a significant potential for tannins recovery. Permeated fractions from membranes with MWCO lower than 3.8 kDa, presented a particularly significant decline of organic matter and phenols, enabling this permeates to be reused in the cork processing and so, representing an interesting perspective of zero discharge for the cork industry, with evident environmental and economic advantages. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Exposição a fumo de soldaduras: quais os factores de risco?

Mestrado em Segurança e Higiene no Trabalho.

Tratamento de superfícies metálicas por nanotecnologia

Trabalho Final de Mestrado para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Química e Biológica

Water quality in lakes and reservoirs in China

Dissertation elaborated for the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master Degree in Civil Engineering in the Speciality Area of Hydarulics

Renewable energy in Islands: an integrated proposal for electricity generation and transports

The purpose of this article is to analyse and evaluate the economical, energetic and environmental impacts of the increasing penetration of renewable energies and electrical vehicles in isolated systems, such as Terceira Island in Azores and Madeira Island. Given the fact that the islands are extremely dependent on the importation of fossil fuels - not only for the production of energy, but also for the transportation’s sector – it’s intended to analyse how it is possible to reduce that dependency and determine the resultant reduction of pollutant gas emissions. Different settings have been analysed - with and without the penetration of EVs. The Terceira Island is an interesting case study, where EVs charging during off-peak hours could allow an increase in geothermal power, limited by the valley of power demand. The percentage of renewable energy in the electric power mix could reach the 74% in 2030 while at the same time, it is possible to reduce the emissions of pollutant gases in 45% and the purchase of fossil fuels in 44%. In Madeira, apart from wind, solar and small hydro power, there are not so many endogenous resources and the Island’s emission factor cannot be so reduced as in Terceira. Although, it is possible to reduce fossil fuels imports and emissions in 1.8% in 2030 when compared with a BAU scenario with a 14% of the LD fleet composed by EVs.

Renewable energy in Islands: an integrated proposal for electricity generation and transports

The purpose of this article is to analyse and evaluate the economical, energetic and environmental impacts of the increasing penetration of renewable energies and electrical vehicles in isolated systems, such as Terceira Island in Azores and Madeira Island. Given the fact that the islands are extremely dependent on the importation of fossil fuels - not only for the production of energy, but also for the transportation’s sector – it’s intended to analyse how it is possible to reduce that dependency and determine the resultant reduction of pollutant gas emissions. Different settings have been analysed - with and without the penetration of EVs. The Terceira Island is an interesting case study, where EVs charging during off-peak hours could allow an increase in geothermal power, limited by the valley of power demand. The percentage of renewable energy in the electric power mix could reach the 74% in 2030 while at the same time, it is possible to reduce the emissions of pollutant gases in 45% and the purchase of fossil fuels in 44%. In Madeira, apart from wind, solar and small hydro power, there are not so many endogenous resources and the Island’s emission factor cannot be so reduced as in Terceira. Although, it is possible to reduce fossil fuels imports and emissions in 1.8% in 2030 when compared with a BAU scenario with a 14% of the LD fleet composed by EVs.

Exposição ocupacional a compostos orgânicos voláteis e a matéria particulada na limpeza automóvel em parques de estacionamento

Mestrado em Segurança e Higiene no Trabalho

The electric vehicles as a mean to reduce Co2 emissions and energy costs in isolated regions: the São Miguel (Azores) case study

Most of small islands around the world today, are dependent on imported fossil fuels for the majority of their energy needs especially for transport activities and electricity production. The use of locally renewable energy resources and the implementation of energy efficiency measures could make a significant contribution to their economic development by reducing fossil fuel imports. An electrification of vehicles has been suggested as a way to both reduce pollutant emissions and increase security of supply of the transportation sector by reducing the dependence on oil products imports and facilitate the accommodation of renewable electricity generation, such as wind and, in the case of volcanic islands like Sao Miguel (Azores) of the geothermal energy whose penetration has been limited by the valley electricity consumption level. In this research, three scenarios of EV penetration were studied and it was verified that, for a 15% LD fleet replacement by EVs with 90% of all energy needs occurring during the night, the accommodation of 10 MW of new geothermal capacity becomes viable. Under this scenario, reductions of 8% in electricity costs, 14% in energy, 23% in fossil fuels use and CO2 emissions for the transportation and electricity production sectors could be expected.