Biomass Refinery as a Renewable Complement to the Petroleum Refinery

Biomass Refinery is a sequential of eleven thermochemical processes and one biological process with two initial basic treatments: prehydrolysis for lignocellulosics and low temperature conversion for biomass with medium-to-high content of lipids and proteins. The other ten processes are: effluent treatment plant, furfural plant, biodiesel plant, cellulignin dryer, calcination, fluidized bed boiler, authotermal reforming of cellulignin for syngas production, combined cycle of two-stroke low-speed engine or syngas turbine with fluidized bed boiler heat recovery, GTL technologies and ethanol from cellulose, prehydrolysate and syngas. Any kind of biomass such as wood, agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, seeds, cakes, sludges, excrements and used tires can be processed at the Biomass Refinery. Twelve basic products are generated such as cellulignin, animal feed, electric energy, fuels (ethanol, crude oil, biodiesel, char), petrochemical substitutes, some materials (ash, gypsum, fertilizers, silica, carbon black) and hydrogen. The technology is clean with recovery of energy and reuse of water, acid and effluents. Based on a holistic integration of various disciplines Biomass Refinery maximizes the simultaneous production of food, electric energy, liquid fuels and chemical products and some materials, achieving a competitive position with conventional and fossil fuel technologies, as well as payment capacity for biomass production. Biomass Refinery has a technical economical capability to complement the depletion of the conventional petroleum sources and to capture its GHGs resulting a biomass + petroleum ""green"" combination.

Biomassa e energia

Biomass was the dominating source of energy for human activities until the middle 19th century, when coal, oil, gas and other energy sources became increasingly important but it still represents ca. 10% of the worldwide energy supply. The major part of biomass for energy is still "traditional biomass" used as wood and coal extracted from native forests and thus non-sustainable, used with low efficiency for cooking and home heating, causing pollution problems. This use is largely done in rural areas and it is usually not supported by trading activities. There is now a strong trend to the modernization of biomass use, especially making alcohol from sugar cane thus replacing gasoline, or biodiesel to replace Diesel oil, beyond the production of electricity and vegetable coal using wood from planted forests. As recently as in 2004, sustainable "modern biomass" represented 2% of worldwide energy consumption. This article discusses the perspectives of the "first" and "second" technology generations for liquid fuel production, as well as biomass gaseification to make electricity or syngas that is in turn used in the Fischer-Tropsch process.

Theoretical and experimental study of the thermal degradation of Eucalyptus timber

Thermal action on timber causes it to degrade through combustion of its chemical components, which leads to the release of vapors, combustible gases and surface char. This diminishes its load capacity, due to the reduction of its cross section by charring and to changes in its mechanical properties of strength and stiffness as a function of its exposure to high temperatures. This paper reports the charring rates observed on Eucalyptus structural beams and presents a numerical and experimental study of the behavior of these beams when exposed to fire, in which the properties of strength and stiffness were evaluated as a function of rising temperatures, allowing an analysis of the effect of the section factor on the internal rise in temperature of structural Eucalyptus beams.

Emissions of NO(x) and SO(2) from Coals of Various Ranks, Bagasse, and Coal-Bagasse Blends Burning in O(2)/N(2) and O(2)/CO(2) Environments

Oxy-coal combustion is a viable technology, for new and existing coal-fired power plants, as it facilitates carbon capture and, thereby, can mitigate climate change. Pulverized coals of various ranks, biomass, and their blends were burned to assess the evolution of combustion effluent gases, such as NO(x), SO(2), and CO, under a variety of background gas compositions. The fuels were burned in an electrically heated laboratory drop-tube furnace in O(2)/N(2) and O(2)/CO(2) environments with oxygen mole fractions of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%, at a furnace temperature of 1400 K. The fuel mass flow rate was kept constant in most cases, and combustion was fuel-lean. Results showed that in the case of four coals studied, NO(x) emissions in O(2)/CO(2) environments were lower than those in O(2)/N(2) environments by amounts that ranged from 19 to 43% at the same oxygen concentration. In the case of bagasse and coal/bagasse blends, the corresponding NO(x) reductions ranged from 22 to 39%. NO(x) emissions were found to increase with increasing oxygen mole fraction until similar to 50% O(2) was reached; thereafter, they monotonically decreased with increasing oxygen concentration. NO(x) emissions from the various fuels burned did not clearly reflect their nitrogen content (0.2-1.4%), except when large content differences were present. SO(2) emissions from all fuels remained largely unaffected by the replacement of the N(2) diluent gas with CO(2), whereas they typically increased with increasing sulfur content of the fuels (0.07-1.4%) and decreased with increasing calcium content of the fuels (0.28-2.7%). Under the conditions of this work, 20-50% of the fuel-nitrogen was converted to NO(x). The amount of fuel-sulfur converted to SO(2) varied widely, depending on the fuel and, in the case of the bituminous coal, also depending on the O(2) mole fraction. Blending the sub-bituminous coal with bagasse reduced its SO(2) yields, whereas blending the bituminous coal with bagasse reduced both its SO(2) and NO(x) yields. CO emissions were generally very low in all cases. The emission trends were interpreted on the basis of separate combustion observations.

Catalytic conversion of wastes from the bioethanol production into carbon nanomaterials

This work addressed the production of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) by catalytic conversion of wastes from the bioethanol industry, in the form of either sugarcane bagasse or corn-derived distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). Both bagasse and DDGS were pyrolysed at temperatures in the range of 600-1000 degrees C. The pyrolyzate gases were then used as CNM growth agents by chemical vapor deposition on stainless steel meshes, serving as both catalysts and substrates. CNM synthesis temperatures of 750-1000 degrees C were explored, and it was determined that their growth was most pronounced at 1000 degrees C. The nanomaterials produced from pyrolysis of bagasse were in the form of long, straight, multi-wall nanotubes with smooth walls and axially uniform diameters. Typical lengths were circa 50 mu m and diameters were in the range of 20-80 nm. The nanomaterials produced from pyrolysis of DDGS were in the form of long, entangled, rope-like structures with rugged walls, and axially non-uniform diameters. Typical diameters were in the range of 100-300 nm and their lengths were in the tens of microns. This process also produces a bio-syngas byproduct that is enriched in hydrogen. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Reaction rate and product morphology in carbon composite iron ore pellets with and without Portland cement

The aim of this work is to study the reaction rate and the morphology of intermediate reaction products during iron ore reduction when iron ore and carbonaceous materials are agglomerated together with or without Portland cement. The reaction was performed at high temperatures, and used small size samples in order to minimise heat transfer constraints. Coke breeze and pure graphite were the carbonaceous materials employed. Portland cement was applied as a binder, and pellet diameters were in the range 5.6-6.5 mm. The experimental technique involved the measurement of the pellet weight loss, as well as the interruption of the reaction at different stages, in order to submit the partially reduced pellet to scanning electron microscopy. The experimental temperature was in the range 1423-1623 K, and the total reaction time varied from 240 to 1200 s. It was observed that above 1523 K the formation of liquid slag occurred inside the pellets, which partially dissolved iron oxides. The apparent activation energies obtained were 255 kJ mol(-1) for coke breeze containing pellets, and 230 kJ mol(-1) for those pellets containing graphite. It was possible to avoid heat transfer control of the reaction rate up to 1523 K by employing small composite pellets.

Diversity of Somatic Coliphages in Coastal Regions with Different Levels of Anthropogenic Activity in Sao Paulo State, Brazil

Bacteriophages are the most abundant and genetically diverse viruses on Earth, with complex ecology in both quantitative and qualitative terms. Somatic coliphages (SC) have been reported to be good indicators of fecal pollution in seawater. This study focused on determining the concentration of SC and their diversity by electron microscopy of seawater, plankton, and bivalve samples collected at three coastal regions in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The SC counts varied from < 1 to 3.4 x 103 PFU/100 ml in seawater (73 samples tested), from < 1 to 4.7 x 10(2) PFU/g in plankton (46 samples tested), and from < 1 to 2.2 x 10(1) PFU/g in bivalves (11 samples tested). In seawater samples, a relationship between the thermotolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli and SC was observed at the three regions (P = 0.0001) according to the anthropogenic activities present at each region. However, SC were found in plankton samples from three regions: Baixada Santista (17/20), Canal de Sao Sebastiao (6/14), and Ubatuba (3/12). In seawater samples collected from Baixada Santista, four morphotypes were observed: A1 (4.5%), B1 (50%), C1 (36.4%), and D1 (9.1%). One coliphage, Siphoviridae type T1, had the longest tail: between 939 and 995 nm. In plankton samples, Siphoviridae (65.8%), Podoviridae (15.8%), Microviridae (15.8%), and Myoviridae (2.6%) were found. In bivalves, only the morphotype B1 was observed. These SC were associated with enteric hosts: enterobacteria, E. coli, Proteus, Salmonella, and Yersinia. Baixada Santista is an area containing a high level of fecal pollution compared to those in the Canal de Sao Sebastiao and Ubatuba. This is the first report of coliphage diversity in seawater, plankton, and bivalve samples collected from Sao Paulo coastal regions. A better characterization of SC diversity in coastal environments will help with the management and evaluation of the microbiological risks for recreation, seafood cultivation, and consumption.

Star-group identities and groups of units

Analogous to *-identities in rings with involution we define *-identities in groups. Suppose that G is a torsion group with involution * and that F is an infinite field with char F not equal 2. Extend * linearly to FG. We prove that the unit group U of FG satisfies a *-identity if and only if the symmetric elements U(+) satisfy a group identity.

Group algebras of torsion groups and Lie nilpotence

Let * be an involution of a group algebra FG induced by an involution of the group G. For char F not equal 2, we classify the torsion groups G with no elements of order 2 whose Lie algebra of *-skew elements is nilpotent.

Group 11 (Cu, Ag, Au) promotion of 15%Co/Al(2)O(3) Fischer-Tropsch synthesis catalysts

Co/Al(2)O(3) Fischer-Tropsch synthesis catalysts promoted with different quantities of Group 11 metals (Cu, Ag, Au) were characterized and tested. The presence of relatively small quantities of such metals enhanced Co reducibility and, in the cases of Ag and Au, improved the surface Co metal active site densities. EXAFS experiments with the most loaded catalyst samples show that only Co-Co and Me-Me (Me = Cu, Ag and Au) coordination could be observed. This suggests that the greater fraction of the metals form different phases. However, the reduction promoting effect of the Group 11 metal is severely hampered once the catalyst receives a mild passivation treatment following primary reduction. An explanation in terms of promoter segregation during primary reduction is proposed. At lower promoter levels (0.83%Ag and 1.51%Au) and higher Ag levels (2.76%), significant gains in Co active site densities were achieved resulting in improved CO conversion levels relative to the unpromoted catalyst. Moreover, slight decreases in light product (e.g., CH(4)) selectivity and slight increases in C(5)+ selectivity were achieved. At high Au loading (5.05%), however, too much Au was loaded which, although significantly increasing the fraction of Co reduced, blocked Co surface sites and resulted in decreased Co conversion rates. While Cu facilitated Co reduction, the increased fraction of reduced Co did not translate to improved active site densities. It appears that a fraction of Cu tended to cover the rim of Co clusters, resulting in decreases in CO conversion rates and detrimental increases in light product selectivity. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Synthesis of NiO-MgO-ZrO(2) catalysts and their performance in reforming of model biogas

Catalysts containing NiO/MgO/ZrO(2) mixtures were synthesized by the polymerization method in a single step. They were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), temperature programmed reduction (TPR) and physisorption of N(2) (BET) and then tested in the reforming of a model biogas (1.5CH4:1CO(2)) in the presence of air (1.5CH(4) + 1CO(2) + 0.25O(2)) at 750 degrees C for 6h. It was observed that the catalyst Ni20MZ performed better in catalytic processes than the well known catalysts, Ni/ZrO(2) and Ni/MgO, synthesized under the same conditions. The formation of solid solutions, MgO-ZrO(2) and NiO-MgO, increased the rate of conversion of reactants (CH(4) and CO(2)) into synthesis gas (H(2) + CO). The formation of oxygen vacancies (in samples containing ZrO(2) and MgO) seems to promote removal of the coke deposited on the nickel surface. The values of the H(2)/CO ratio were generally found to be slightly lower than stoichiometric, owing to the reverse water gas shift reaction occurring in parallel. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.