Microhabitat Selection of three Forest Understory Birds in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest

When assessing fragmentation effects on species, not only habitat preferences on the landscape scale, but also microhabitat selection is an important factor to consider, as microhabitat is also affected by habitat disturbance, but nevertheless essential for species for foraging, nesting and sheltering. In the Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil we examined microhabitat selection of six Pyriglena leucoptera (white-shouldered fire-eye), 10 Sclerurus scansor (rufous-breasted leaftosser), and 30 Chiroxiphia caudata (blue manakin). We radio-tracked the individuals between May 2004 and February 2005 to gain home ranges based on individual fixed kernels. Vegetation structures in core plots and fringe plots were compared. In C. caudata, we additionally assessed the influence of behavioural traits on microhabitat selection. Further, we compared microhabitat structures in the fragmented forest with those in the contiguous, and contrasted the results with the birds` preferences. Pyriglena leucoptera preferred liana tangles that were more common in the fragmented forest, whereas S. scansor preferred woody debris, open forest floor (up to 0.5 m), and a thin closed leaf litter cover which all occurred significantly more often in the contiguous forest. Significant differences were detected in C. caudata for vegetation densities in the different strata; the distance of core plots to the nearest lek site was significantly influenced by sex and age. However, core sites of C. caudata in fragmented and contiguous forests showed no significant differences in structure. Exploring microhabitat selection and behavior may greatly support the understanding of habitat selection of species and their susceptibility to fragmentation on the landscape scale.

Landscape perception by forest understory birds in the Atlantic Rainforest: black-and-white versus shades of grey

Even among forest specialists, species-specific responses to anthropogenic forest fragmentation may vary considerably. Some appear to be confined to forest interiors, and perceive a fragmented landscape as a mosaic of suitable fragments and hostile matrix. Others, however, are able to make use of matrix habitats and perceive the landscape in shades of grey rather than black-and-white. We analysed data of 42 Chiroxiphia caudata (Blue Manakin), 10 Pyriglena leucoptera (White-shouldered Fire-eye) and 19 Sclerurus scansor (Rufous-breasted Leaftosser) radio-tracked in the Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil between 2003 and 2005. We illustrate how habitat preferences may determine how species respond to or perceive the landscape structure. We compared available with used habitat to develop a species-specific preference index for each of six habitat classes. All three species preferred old forest, but relative use of other classes differed significantly. S. scansor perceived great contrast between old forest and matrix, whereas the other two species perceived greater habitat continuity. For conservation planning, our study offers three important messages: (1) some forest specialist species are able to persist in highly fragmented landscapes; (2) some forest species may be able to make use of different anthropogenic habitat types to various degrees; whereas (3) others are restricted to the remaining forest fragments. Our study suggests species most confined to forest interiors to be considered as potential umbrella species for landscape-scale conservation planning.

Movements of neotropical understory passerines affected by anthropogenic forest edges in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest

Edge effects are suggested to have great impact on the persistence of species in fragmented landscapes. We tested edge avoidance by forest understory passerines in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest and also compared their mobility and movement patterns in contiguous and fragmented landscapes to assess whether movements would increase in the fragmented landscape. Between 2003 and 2005, 96 Chiroxiphia caudata, 38 Pyriglena leucoptera and 27 Sclerurus scansor were radio-tracked. The most strictly forest species C. caudata and S scansor avoided forest edges while P leucoptera showed affinities for the edge Both sensitive species showed larger mean step length and maximal observed daily distance in the fragmented forest versus the unfragmented forest. P. leucoptera did not show any significant difference. There were no significant differences in proportional daily home range use for any of the three species. Our results suggested that fragmentation and the consequent increase in edge areas do influence movement behavior of sensitive forest understory birds that avoided the use of edges and increased the speed and distance they covered daily. For the most restricted forest species, it would be advisable to protect larger patches of forest instead of many small or medium fragments connected by narrow corridors. However, by comparing our data with that obtained earlier, we concluded that movement behavior of resident birds differs from that of dispersing birds and might not allow to infer functional connectivity or landscape-scale sensitivity to fragmentation; a fact that should be taken into consideration when suggesting conservation strategies. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Relative effects of fragment size and connectivity on bird community in the Atlantic Rain Forest: Implications for conservation

It is known that large fragment sizes and high connectivity levels are key components for maintaining species in fragments; however, their relative effects are poorly understood, especially in tropical areas. In order to test these effects, we built models for explaining understory birds occurrence in a fragmented Atlantic Rain Forest landscape with intermediate habitat cover (3%). Data from over 9000 mist-net hours from 17 fragments differing in size (2-175 ha) and connectivity (considering corridor linkages and distance to nearby fragments) were ranked under a model selection approach. A total 1293 individuals of 62 species were recorded. Species richness, abundance and compositional variation were mainly affected by connectivity indices that consider the capacity of species to use corridors and/or to cross short distances up to 30 m through the matrix. Bird functional groups were differently affected by area and connectivity: while terrestrial insectivores, omnivores and frugivores were affected by both area and connectivity, the other groups (understory insectivores, nectarivores, and others) were affected only by connectivity. In the studied landscape, well connected fragments can sustain an elevated number of species and individuals. Connectivity gives the opportunity for individuals to use multiple fragments, reducing the influence of fragment size. While preserving large fragments is a conservation target worldwide and should continue to be, our results indicated that connectivity between fragments can enhance the area functionally connected and is beneficial to all functional groups and therefore should be a conservation priority. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Edge effects as the principal cause of area effects on birds in fragmented secondary forest

Bird communities in tropical forests are strongly affected by both patch area and habitat edges. The fact that both effects are intrinsically confounded in space raises questions about how these two widely reported ecological patterns interact, and whether they are independent or simply different spatial manifestations of the same phenomenon. Moreover, do small patches of secondary forest, in landscapes where the most sensitive species have gone locally extinct, exhibit similar patterns to those previously observed in fragmented and continuous primary forests? We addressed these questions by testing edge-related differences in vegetation structure and bird community composition at 31 sites in fragmented and continuous landscapes in the imperilled Atlantic forest of Brazil. Over a two-year period, birds were captured with mist nets to a standardized effort of 680 net-hours at each site (similar to 22 000 net-hours resulting in 3381 captures from 114 species). We found that the bird community in patches of secondary forest was degraded in species composition compared to primary continuous forest, but still exhibited a strong response to edge effects. In fragmented secondary forests, edge and area effects also interacted, such that the magnitude of edge to interior differences on bird community composition declined markedly with patch size. The change in bird species composition between forest interiors and edges was similar to the change in community composition between large and small patches (because species had congruent responses to edge and area), but after controlling for edge effects community composition was no longer affected by patch area. Our results show that although secondary forests hold an impoverished bird community, ecological patterns such as area and edge effects are similar to those reported for primary forests. Our data provide further evidence that edge effects are the main drivers of area effects in fragmented landscapes.

Birds from cerradão woodland, an overlooked forest of the Cerrado region, Brazil

The Cerrado region still receives relatively little ornithological attention, although it is regarded as the only tropical savanna in the world considered to be a biodiversity hotspot. Cerradão is one of the least known and most deforested Cerrado physiognomies and few recent bird surveys have been conducted in these forests. In order to rescue bird records and complement the few existing inventories of this under-studied forest type in the state of São Paulo, we looked for published papers on birds of cerradão. Additionally we surveyed birds at a 314-ha cerradão remnant located in central São Paulo, Brazil, from September 2005-December 2006 using unlimited distance transect counts. Out of 95 investigations involving cerradão bird studies, only 17 (18%) investigations teased apart bird species recorded inside cerradão from those recorded in other physiognomies of Cerrado. Except for one study, no research found more than 64 species in this type of forest, a result shared within many regions from Brazil and Bolivia. Differences in species richness do not seem be related with levels of disturbance of landscape or fragment size. Considering all species recorded in cerradão in Brazil and Bolivia, a compilation of data accumulated 250 species in 36 families and 15 orders. In recent surveys at central São Paulo, we recorded 48 species in 20 families, including the Pale-bellied Tyrant-Manakin Neopelma pallescens, threatened in São Paulo, and the Helmeted Manakin Antilophia galeata, near threatened in the state and endemic to the Cerrado region. Among the most abundant species inside this fragment, none was considered to be neither threatened nor endemic.

Detection of Mycobacterium avium in pet birds

The present study is a report on the presence of Mycobacterium avium in four birds of the psittaciform order kept as pets. Anatomopathological diagnosis showed lesions suggestive of the agent and presence of alcohol-acid resistant bacilli (AARB) shown by the Ziehl-Neelsen staining. The identification of Mycobacterium avium was performed by means of PRA (PCR Restriction Analysis). DNA was directly extracted from tissue of the lesions and blocked in paraffin. The role of this agent in pet bird infection is discussed, as well as its zoonotic potential.

Evaluation of two round baling systems for harvesting understory biomass

The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance and to estimate costs of two round baling systems for harvesting understory biomass. One system was a cutter-shredderbaler prototype (Bio-baler). The other system required two successive operations. The first operation was cutting and shredding with a Supertrak tractor equipped with a Fecon mulcher head. The second operation was baling with a Claas baler. The machines were evaluated in three different pine stands on the Osceola National Forest in Florida, United States. Data collection included time study, fuel consumption and bale measurements. Material was collected from a sample of bales for heat and moisture content determination. On the most representative site (Site 2), the Bio-baler recovered 8.05 green t ha(-1) while the mulcher and the Claas baler recovered 9.75 green t ha(-1) (43 and 52 percent of original understory biomass, respectively). Productivity was 0.30 ha h(-1) for the Bio-baler and 0.51 ha h(-1) for the Claas baler. Density of the bales was 321 green kg m(-3) for the Bio-baler and 373 green kg m(-3) for the Claas baler. Average net heat content was 6263 MJ bale(-1) for the Bio-baler and 6695 MJ bale(-1) for the Claas baler with biomass containing 38 percent of moisture content on a wet basis. cost per unit area was less with the Bio-baler (US$320.91 ha(-1)) than with the mulcher-baler system (US$336.62-US$596.77 ha(-1)). Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Natural regeneration of Atlantic Forest species in the understory of Eucalyptus saligna Smith. in a former forest production unit at the Parque das Neblinas, Bertioga, SP

This study aimed at characterizing the potential for natural regeneration of native vegetation in the under-story of an earlier Eucalyptus saligna Smith production stand. The study was carried out at the Parque das Neblinas, Bertioga municipality, SP, in a 45 ha third rotation stand; which had been abandoned 15 years ago for natural regeneration to occur. The sampling was done in 24 plots of 20 x 40 m. The sampled area was of 19,200 m(2), with inventory made of 100% of the eucalyptus trees. All regeneration trees with a height >= 1.30 m and DBH >= 5.0 cm were measured, as well as adult individuals with DBH >= 5.0 cm; surveyed in two size classes. 1,417 individuals of E. saligna were measured, with a density of 738,02 individuals/ha and a basal area of 22.69 m(2)/ha. Among 2,763 natural regeneration individuals, 111 species belonged to 66 genera and 34 botanical families. The species represented 43.7% of the tree richness of neighboring native forest fragments. The total estimated density and the basal area were respectively 1,052.6 individuals/ha and 6.4 m(2)/ha of autochthonous trees with DBH >= 5.0 cm (Class 1); while for regeneration there were 3,864.58 individuals/ha, and 2.76 m(2)/ha of individuals with a height >= 1.30 m and DBH <5.0 cm (Class 2). Shannon diversity (H`) was 2.83 and 3.68, respectively, for Classes 1 and 2, and the corrected species richness for a 1000-individual sample (R(1000)) were 75.6 and 87.29 (Fisher`s a index) for the same classes. The majority of the species (34.84%) was typical from the understory of wet tropical forest and had zoochoric fruit dispersal (67.57%). The results indicate that, under these conditions, a eucalyptus forest is able to provide adequate regeneration niches for native vegetation, and may represent a sink habitat for local populations.

Ticks (Acari : ixodidae) infesting wild birds in an Atlantic forest area in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, with isolation of Rickettsia from the tick Amblyomma longirostre

During field work in Nazare Paulista, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, we found 13 (56.5%) of 23 birds (mostly Passeriformes) to be infested by 28 larvae and I nymph of Amblyomma spp. Two larvae were reared to the adult stage, being taxonomically identified as Amblyomma parkeri Fonseca and Aragao, whereas five larvae and one nymph were identified as Amblyomma longirostre Koch. All six A. longirostre specimens were shown to be infected by rickettsia, as demonstrated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting two rickettsial genes (gltA and ompA) or isolation of rickettsia in cell culture from one of the ticks. This isolate was designated as strain AL, which was established in Vero cell culture and was molecularly characterized by DNA sequencing fragments of the rickettsial genes gltA, htrA, ompA, and ompB. Phylogenetic analyses inferred from ompA and ompB partial sequences showed a high degree of similarity of strain AL with Rickettsia sp. strain ARANHA, previously detected by PCR in A. longirostre ticks from Rondonia, northern Brazil. We conclude that strain AL is a new rickettsia genotype belonging to the same species of strain ARANHA, which are closely related to Candidatus `R. amblyomniii`. Further studies should elucidate if strains AL and ARANHA are different strains of Candidatus `R. amblyommii` or are a new species.

SEROPREVALENCE OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII ANTIBODIES IN CAPTIVE WILD MAMMALS AND BIRDS IN BRAZIL

In this study, serum samples of 203 animals from different locations, from zoos and breeding facilities from the north and northeast regions of Brazil, were analyzed for the presence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies by the modified agglutination test (MAT) with a cutoff of 1:25. Of the sampled animals, 184 were adult mammals of both sexes and 19 were birds. Antibodies were found in 61 of 184 mammals, and no association between sex and age of the animals and the presence of T. gondii antibodies was observed (P < 0.05). Anti-T gondii antibodies were not found in birds. Toxoplasma gondii was detected in Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) for the first time.

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) Infesting Birds in an Atlantic Rain Forest Region of Brazil

Brazil has the third richest bird diversity of the world; however, there are few data concerning ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) parazitizing birds. The aim of the study was to report tick infestations on wild birds from an Atlantic rain forest region of Brazil. During 2 yr, ticks were collected from birds and from the environment in 12 forest sites. A total of 1,725 birds were captured representing 80 species from 24 families. In total, 223 (13%) birds were found infested by immature stages of Amblyomma ticks: 1,800 larvae and 539 nymphs. The prevalence of ticks was higher among-birds from the families Thamnophilidae, Conopophagidae, and Momotidae. The most common tick parasitizing birds was Amblyomma nodosum Koch. Other tick species, Amblyomma coelebs Neumann, Amblyomma cajennense (F.), Amblyomma ovale Koch, Amblyomma longirostre (Koch), Amblyomma calcaratum Neumann, and Amblyomma naponense (Packard), were found sporadically. Among free-living ticks collected in the environment, A. cajennense was the most common, followed by A. coelebs, A. naponense, Amblyomma brasilense Aragao, and Hemaphysalis juxtakochi Cooley.

A Survey of Diseases in Passeriform Birds Obtained From Illegal Wildlife Trade in Sao Paulo City, Brazil

The order Passeriformes comprises the largest number of families and species of birds of any avian order. Brazil is rich in passerine birds, which are a common victim of wildlife trafficking in Brazil. Annually, many birds die as a consequence of illegal trade. To investigate the occurrence of the principle diseases and to identify the main causes of death in smuggled passerine birds, the cause of death was evaluated in 360 passerine birds confiscated within the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Causes of death were determined by anatomopathologic and microbiologic studies. Infectious diseases were the cause of death of most birds, which corresponded to 78.6% of cases. The most common infectious diseases were poxvirus infection, aspergillosis, and coccidiosis. Although the etiologic agents of these diseases can coexist asymptomatically within hosts, once the host`s immunity is compromised, the pathogen multiplies quickly and causes disease. The results of this study may help to improve the care of passerine birds in captivity and increase the survival rate of confiscated birds. Results may also be useful for in situ conservation programs that investigate the reintroduction of confiscated species or captive birds.

Occurrence of Sarcocystis falcatula in Captive Psittacine Birds in Brazil

Thirty-eight captive psittacine birds housed in a bird park in Foz do Iguacu, Parana, Brazil, died within a 15-month period as a result of infection with Sarcocystis falcatula. Although fatalities affected 16 species of psittacine birds, mortality was highest in Old World species, which were most susceptible to the pulmonary form of sarcocystosis. Along with the pathologic findings of this disease outbreak, a review of the pathophysiology of sarcosporidiosis is presented.

Genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. from free-living wild birds from Brazil

In wild and domestic birds, cryptosporidiosis is often associated with infections by Cryptosporidium galli, Cryptosporidium baileyi and Cryptosporidium meleagridis. In addition to these species, a number of avian Cryptosporidium species yet to be fully characterized are commonly found among exotic and wild avian isolates. The present study aimed to detect and identify samples of Cryptosporidium spp. from free-living wild birds, in order to contribute to the knowledge of the variability of this parasite in the free-living population of Brazil. Stool samples were collected from 242 birds, with the following proportions of individuals: 50 Emberizidae (20.7%), 112 Psittacidae (46.3%), 44 Cardinalidae (18.2%), 12 Turdidae (5.0%), eight Ramphastidae (3.3%), seven Icteridae (2.9%), three Estrilididae (1.2%), two Contigidae (0.8%), two Thraupidae (0.8%) and two Fringilidae (0.8%). Among the 242 fecal samples from wild birds, 16(6.6%) were positive for the presence of oocysts of Cryptosporidium. Molecular characterization of the 16 samples of Cryptosporidium, were performed with phylogenetic reconstructions employing 292 positions of 18S rDNA. None of the samples of birds was characterized as C meleagridis. C gall was identified in one rufous-bellied thrush (Turdus rufiventris), five green-winged saltators (Saltator similis), one slate-coloured seedeater (Sporophila schistacea), one goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) and three saffron finches (Sicalis flaveola). One goldfinch isolate, one buff-fronted seedeater (Sporophila frontalis), one red-cowled cardinal (Paroaria dominicana) and one other saffron finch (S. flaveola) were identified as C. baileyi. Avian genotype II was found in an isolate from a white-eyed parakeet (Aratinga leucophthalma). Clinical symptoms of cryptosporidiosis in birds have already been described and the number of wild birds which were shedding parasites was high. Therefore, further epidemiological research and disease surveillance of birds in the wild is warranted. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.