Using indicators of deforestation and land-use dynamics to support conservation strategies: A case study of central Rondonia, Brazil

In Rondonia State, Brazil, settlement processes have cleared 68,000 km 2 of tropical forests since the 1970s. The intensity of deforestation has differed by region depending on driving factors like roads and economic activities. Different histories of land-use activities and rates of change have resulted in mosaics of forest patches embedded in an agricultural matrix. Yet, most assessments of deforestation and its effects on vegetation, soil and water typically focus on landscape patterns of current conditions, yet historical deforestation dynamics can influence current conditions strongly. Here, we develop and describe the use of four land-use dynamic indicators to capture historical land-use changes of catchments and to measure the rate of deforestation (annual deforestation rate), forest regeneration level (secondary forest mean proportion), time since disturbance (mean time since deforestation) and deforestation profile (deforestation profile curvature). We used the proposed indices to analyze a watershed located in central Rondonia. Landsat TM and ETM+ images were used to produce historical land-use maps of the last 18 years, each even year from 1984 to 2002 for 20 catchments. We found that the land-use dynamics indicators are able to distinguish catchments with different land-use change profiles. Four categories of historical land-use were identified: old and dominant pasture cover on small properties, recent deforestation and dominance of secondary growth, old extensive pastures and large forest remnants and, recent deforestation, pasture and large forest remnants. Knowing historical deforestation processes is important to develop appropriate conservation strategies and define priorities and actions for conserving forests currently under deforestation. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Effects of roads, topography, and land use on forest cover dynamics in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Roads and topography can determine patterns of land use and distribution of forest cover, particularly in tropical regions. We evaluated how road density, land use, and topography affected forest fragmentation, deforestation and forest regrowth in a Brazilian Atlantic Forest region near the city of Sao Paulo. We mapped roads and land use/land cover for three years (1962, 1981 and 2000) from historical aerial photographs, and summarized the distribution of roads, land use/land cover and topography within a grid of 94 non-overlapping 100 ha squares. We used generalized least squares regression models for data analysis. Our models showed that forest fragmentation and deforestation depended on topography, land use and road density, whereas forest regrowth depended primarily on land use. However, the relationships between these variables and forest dynamics changed in the two studied periods; land use and slope were the strongest predictors from 1962 to 1981, and past (1962) road density and land use were the strongest predictors for the following period (1981-2000). Roads had the strongest relationship with deforestation and forest fragmentation when the expansions of agriculture and buildings were limited to already deforested areas, and when there was a rapid expansion of development, under influence of Sao Paulo city. Furthermore, the past(1962)road network was more important than the recent road network (1981) when explaining forest dynamics between 1981 and 2000, suggesting a long-term effect of roads. Roads are permanent scars on the landscape and facilitate deforestation and forest fragmentation due to increased accessibility and land valorization, which control land-use and land-cover dynamics. Topography directly affected deforestation, agriculture and road expansion, mainly between 1962 and 1981. Forest are thus in peril where there are more roads, and long-term conservation strategies should consider ways to mitigate roads as permanent landscape features and drivers facilitators of deforestation and forest fragmentation. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Expression of cell adhesion proteins and proteins related to angiogenesis and fatty acid metabolism in benign, atypical, and anaplastic meningiomas

Most meningiomas are benign tumours of arachnoidal origin, although a small number have high proliferative rates and invasive properties which complicate complete surgical resection and are associated with increased recurrence rates. Few prognostic indicators exist for meningiomas and further research is necessary to identify factors that influence tumour invasion, oedema and recurrence. Paraffin sections from 25 intracranial meningiomas were analysed for expression of the proteins vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), VEGF receptors Flt1 and Flk1, E-cadherin, metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP2, MMP9), CD44, receptor for hyaluronic acid-mediated motility (RHAMM), hyaluronic acid (HA), CD45, cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), brain fatty acid binding protein (BFABP), Ki67, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). Correlations among protein expression were found for several markers of proliferation (Ki67, PCNA, MI) and microvessel density (MVD). COX2 expression increased with increasing with tumour grade and correlated with Ki67, PCNA, MI, MVD, and BFABP. BFABP expression also correlated with Ki67 and PCNA expression. Relationships were also identified among angiogenic factors (VEGF, Flt1, Flk1) and proliferation markers. Oedema was found to correlate with MMP9 expression and MMP9 also correlated with proliferation markers. No correlations were found for MMP2, E-cadherin, or CD44 in meningiomas. In conclusion Ki67, PCNA, MI, MVD, BFABP, and COX2 were significantly correlated with meningioma tumour grade and with each other. These findings, by correlating both intracellular fatty acid transport and eicosanoid metabolism with tumour proliferation, as determined by Ki67 labelling and mitotic index, suggest fatty acids are involved in the progression of meningiomas.

Laterally transferred genomic islands in Xanthomonadales related to pathogenicity and primary metabolism

Lateral gene transfer (LGT) is considered as one of the drivers in bacterial genome evolution, usually associated with increased fitness and/or changes in behavior, especially if one considers pathogenic vs. non-pathogenic bacterial groups. The genomes of two phytopathogens, Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, were previously inspected for genome islands originating from LGT events, and, in this work, potentially early and late LGT events were identified according to their altered nucleotide composition. The biological role of the islands was also assessed, and pathogenicity, virulence and secondary metabolism pathways were functions highly represented, especially in islands that were found to be recently transferred. However, old islands are composed of a high proportion of genes related to cell primary metabolic functions. These old islands, normally undetected by traditional atypical composition analysis, but confirmed as product of LGT by atypical phylogenetic reconstruction, reveal the role of LGT events by replacing core metabolic genes normally inherited by vertical processes.

Study of the relationship between roads, relief, land use, and natural vegetation in the Ibiuna Plateau - SP, focusing on landscape ecology

Roads facilitate access by deforestation agents, being relevant in studies approaching conservationist matters in rainforests. It is important to understand the relationship between road distribution, relief, land use, and forest coverage in order to evaluate where forests are more vulnerable. This study aimed at: 1) understanding the relationship between relief and density and road connectivity in three moments in time; and 2) evaluating the relationship between distance from roads and forest coverage, farmlands and rural and urban facilities in a fragmented Atlantic Forest landscape in three moments in time. Maps of roads, altitude, and land use and coverage were used. Chi-square tests showed that: 1) density and road connectivity did not present significant relationship with the relief; and 2) forest areas occupy areas distant from the roads, while farmlands and rural and urban facilities occupy areas nearer the roads. Roads and land use, regardless of relief, influence forest coverage distribution. Thus, we suggest that roads are taken into account in conservationist strategies and environmental planning.

Impacts of land-use pattern on soil water-content variability on the Loess Plateau of China

Long-term vegetation restoration carried out on the slopes of the Loess Plateau of China employed different spatial and temporal land-use patterns but very little is known about the effects of these patterns on soil water-content variability. For this study the small Donggou catchment was selected to investigate soil water-content distributions for three spatial scales, including the entire catchment area, sampling transects, and land-use systems. Gravimetric soil water contents were determined incrementally to a soil depth of 1.20 m, on 10 occasions from April to October, 2007, at approximately 20-day intervals. Results indicated that soil water contents were affected by the six land-use types, resulting in four distinct patterns of vertical distribution of soil moisture (uniform, increasing, decreasing, and fluctuating with soil depth). The soil water content and its variation were also influenced in a complex manner by five land-use patterns distributed along transects following the gradients of five similar slopes. These patterns with contrasting hydrological responses in different components, such as forage land (alfalfa)-cropland-shrubland or shrubland-grassland (bunge needlegrass)-cropland-grassland, showed the highest soil water-content variability. Soil water at the catchment scale exhibited a moderate variability for each measurement date, and the variability of soil water content decreased exponentially with increasing soil water content. The minimum sample size for accurate data for use in a hydrological model for the catchment, for example, required many more samples for drier (69) than for wet (10) conditions. To enhance erosion and runoff control, this study suggested two strategies for land management: (i) to create a mosaic pattern by land-use arrangement that located units with higher infiltration capacities downslope from those with lower soil infiltrabilities; and (ii) raising the soil-infiltration capacity of units within the spatial mosaic pattern where possible.

Traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease in primary antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) when compared with secondary APS: a study with 96 patients

Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of traditional risk factors in patients with primary antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) in comparison to those with systemic lupus erythematosus-secondary APS. Methods: Transversal study of 96 APS patients (Sapporo`s criteria). Demographic and clinical data, cardiovascular risk factors and drug use were investigated. Results: Thirty-nine Primary APS and 57 secondary APS were included. The groups did not differ regarding age (38.5 +/- 9.9 vs. 39.4 +/- 10.5 years, p=0.84) and female gender (84.6 vs. 96.5%, p=0.06), respectively. Arterial events were more observed in primary than secondary APS (59 vs. 36.8%, p=0.04) patients. No difference was seen concerning venous and obstetric events. In regard to traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease, both groups were comparable related to current or previous smoking, sedentarism, family history for coronary disease, systemic hypertension, diabetes mellitus, overweight and obesity. The frequencies of altered lipid profiles were alike in the two groups, except for a higher prevalence of low HDL-c levels in primary APS group (84.6 vs. 45.5%, p=0.0001). Concerning drug use, no significant differences were observed related to chloroquine and statin use, however the secondary APS patients had a higher rate of prednisone use (10.2 vs. 57.9%, p<0.001) as well as mean dose of corticosteroid (1.5 +/- 5.7 vs. 9.2 +/- 12.5mg/ /day, p=0.0001). Conclusion: Traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease are present and comparable between patients with primary and secondary APS, except for a high frequency of low HDL-c in primary APS patients.

Discharge-calcium concentration relationships in streams of the Amazon and Cerrado of Brazil: soil or land use controlled

Stream discharge-concentration relationships are indicators of terrestrial ecosystem function. Throughout the Amazon and Cerrado regions of Brazil rapid changes in land use and land cover may be altering these hydrochemical relationships. The current analysis focuses on factors controlling the discharge-calcium (Ca) concentration relationship since previous research in these regions has demonstrated both positive and negative slopes in linear log(10)discharge-log(10)Ca concentration regressions. The objective of the current study was to evaluate factors controlling stream discharge-Ca concentration relationships including year, season, stream order, vegetation cover, land use, and soil classification. It was hypothesized that land use and soil class are the most critical attributes controlling discharge-Ca concentration relationships. A multilevel, linear regression approach was utilized with data from 28 streams throughout Brazil. These streams come from three distinct regions and varied broadly in watershed size (< 1 to > 10(6) ha) and discharge (10(-5.7)-10(3.2) m(3) s(-1)). Linear regressions of log(10)Ca versus log(10)discharge in 13 streams have a preponderance of negative slopes with only two streams having significant positive slopes. An ANOVA decomposition suggests the effect of discharge on Ca concentration is large but variable. Vegetation cover, which incorporates aspects of land use, explains the largest proportion of the variance in the effect of discharge on Ca followed by season and year. In contrast, stream order, land use, and soil class explain most of the variation in stream Ca concentration. In the current data set, soil class, which is related to lithology, has an important effect on Ca concentration but land use, likely through its effect on runoff concentration and hydrology, has a greater effect on discharge-concentration relationships.

Brazilian Agriculture and Environmental Legislation: Status and Future Challenges

Brazilian agriculture covers about one-third of the land area and is expected to expand further We assessed the compliance of present Brazilian agriculture with environmental legislation and identified challenges for agricultural development connected to this legislation We found (i) minor illegal land use in protected areas under public administration, (ii) a large deficit in legal reserves and protected riparian zones on private farmland, and large areas of unprotected natural vegetation in regions experiencing agriculture expansion Achieving full compliance with the environmental laws as they presently stand would require drastic changes in agricultural land use, where large agricultural areas are taken out of production and converted back to natural vegetation The outcome of a full compliance with environmental legislation might not be satisfactory due to leakage, where pristine unprotected areas become converted to compensate for lost production as current agricultural areas are reconverted to protected natural vegetation. Realizing the desired protection of biodiversity and natural vegetation, while expanding agriculture to meet food and biofuel demand, may require a new approach to environmental protection New legal and regulatory instruments and the establishment of alternative development models should be considered

Environmental, land-use and economic implications of Brazilian sugarcane expansion 1996-2006

Governments are promoting biofuels and the resulting changes in land use and crop reallocation to biofuels production have raised concerns about impacts on environment and food security. The promotion of biofuels has also been questioned based on suggested marginal contribution to greenhouse gas emissions reduction, partly due to induced land use change causing greenhouse gas emissions. This study reports how the expansion of sugarcane in Brazil during 1996-2006 affected indicators for environment, land use and economy. The results indicate that sugarcane expansion did not in general contribute to direct deforestation in the traditional agricultural region where most of the expansion took place. The amount of forests on farmland in this area is below the minimum stated in law and the situation did not change over the studied period. Sugarcane expansion resulted in a significant reduction of pastures and cattle heads and higher economic growth than in neighboring areas. It could not be established to what extent the discontinuation of cattle production induced expansion of pastures in other areas, possibly leading to indirect deforestation. However, the results indicate that a possible migration of the cattle production reached further than the neighboring of expansion regions. Occurring at much smaller rates, expansion of sugarcane in regions such as the Amazon and the Northeast region was related to direct deforestation and competition with food crops, and appear not to have induced economic growth. These regions are not expected to experience substantial increases of sugarcane in the near future, but mitigating measures are warranted.

The Amazon Frontier of Land-Use Change: Croplands and Consequences for Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The Brazilian Amazon is one of the most rapidly developing agricultural frontiers in the world. The authors assess changes in cropland area and the intensification of cropping in the Brazilian agricultural frontier state of Mato Grosso using remote sensing and develop a greenhouse gas emissions budget. The most common type of intensification in this region is a shift from single-to double-cropping patterns and associated changes in management, including increased fertilization. Using the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor, the authors created a green-leaf phenology for 2001-06 that was temporally smoothed with a wavelet filter. The wavelet-smoothed green-leaf phenology was analyzed to detect cropland areas and their cropping patterns. The authors document cropland extensification and double-cropping intensification validated with field data with 85% accuracy for detecting croplands and 64% and 89% accuracy for detecting single-and double-cropping patterns, respectively. The results show that croplands more than doubled from 2001 to 2006 to cover about 100 000 km(2) and that new double-cropping intensification occurred on over 20% of croplands. Variations are seen in the annual rates of extensification and double-cropping intensification. Greenhouse gas emissions are estimated for the period 2001-06 due to conversion of natural vegetation and pastures to row-crop agriculture in Mato Grosso averaged 179 Tg CO(2)-e yr(-1),over half the typical fossil fuel emissions for the country in recent years.

Historical carbon emissions and uptake from the agricultural frontier of the Brazilian Amazon

Tropical ecosystems play a large and complex role in the global carbon cycle. Clearing of natural ecosystems for agriculture leads to large pulses of CO(2) to the atmosphere from terrestrial biomass. Concurrently, the remaining intact ecosystems, especially tropical forests, may be sequestering a large amount of carbon from the atmosphere in response to global environmental changes including climate changes and an increase in atmospheric CO(2). Here we use an approach that integrates census-based historical land use reconstructions, remote-sensing-based contemporary land use change analyses, and simulation modeling of terrestrial biogeochemistry to estimate the net carbon balance over the period 1901-2006 for the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, which is one of the most rapidly changing agricultural frontiers in the world. By the end of this period, we estimate that of the state`s 925 225 km(2), 221 092 km(2) have been converted to pastures and 89 533 km(2) have been converted to croplands, with forest-to-pasture conversions being the dominant land use trajectory but with recent transitions to croplands increasing rapidly in the last decade. These conversions have led to a cumulative release of 4.8 Pg C to the atmosphere, with similar to 80% from forest clearing and 20% from the clearing of cerrado. Over the same period, we estimate that the residual undisturbed ecosystems accumulated 0.3 Pg C in response to CO2 fertilization. Therefore, the net emissions of carbon from Mato Grosso over this period were 4.5 Pg C. Net carbon emissions from Mato Grosso since 2000 averaged 146 Tg C/yr, on the order of Brazil`s fossil fuel emissions during this period. These emissions were associated with the expansion of croplands to grow soybeans. While alternative management regimes in croplands, including tillage, fertilization, and cropping patterns promote carbon storage in ecosystems, they remain a small portion of the net carbon balance for the region. This detailed accounting of a region`s carbon balance is the type of foundation analysis needed by the new United Nations Collaborative Programmme for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD).

Defining Nutrient and Biochemical Oxygen Demand Baselines for Tropical Rivers and Streams in So Paulo State (Brazil): A Comparison Between Reference and Impacted Sites

Determining reference concentrations in rivers and streams is an important tool for environmental management. Reference conditions for eutrophication-related water variables are unavailable for Brazilian freshwaters. We aimed to establish reference baselines for So Paulo State tropical rivers and streams for total phosphorus (TP) and nitrogen (TN), nitrogen-ammonia (NH(4) (+)) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) through the best professional judgment and the trisection methods. Data from 319 sites monitored by the So Paulo State Environmental Company (2005 to 2009) and from the 22 Water Resources Management Units in So Paulo State were assessed (N = 27,131). We verified that data from different management units dominated by similar land cover could be analyzed together (Analysis of Variance, P = 0.504). Cumulative frequency diagrams showed that industrialized management units were characterized by the worst water quality (e.g. average TP of 0.51 mg/L), followed by agricultural watersheds. TN and NH(4) (+) were associated with urban percentages and population density (Spearman Rank Correlation Test, P < 0.05). Best professional judgment and trisection (median of lower third of all sites) methods for determining reference concentrations showed agreement: 0.03 & 0.04 mg/L (TP), 0.31 & 0.34 mg/L (TN), 0.06 & 0.10 mg-N/L (NH(4) (+)) and 2 & 2 mg/L (BOD), respectively. Our reference concentrations were similar to TP and TN reference values proposed for temperate water bodies. These baselines can help with water management in So Paulo State, as well as providing some of the first such information for tropical ecosystems.

New Analytic Solution Related to the Richards, Philip, and Green-Ampt Equations for Infiltration

Based on physical laws of similarity, an analytic solution of the soil water potential form of the Richards equation was derived for water infiltration into a homogeneous sand. The derivation assumes a similarity between the soil water retention function and that of the soil water content profiles taken at fixed times. The new solution successfully described soil water content profiles experimentally measured for water infiltrating downward, upward, and horizontally into a homogeneous sand and agrees with that presented by Philip in 1957. The utility of this analysis is still to be verified, but it is expected to hold for soils that have a narrow pore-size distribution before wetting and that manifest a sharp increase of water content at the wetting front during infiltration. The effect of van Genuchten`s parameters alpha and n on the application of the solution to other porous media was investigated. The solution also improves and provides a more realistic description of the infiltration process than that pioneered by Green and Ampt in 1911.

Agonistic behavior and environmental enrichment of cats communally housed in a shelter

Objective-To evaluate the presence of a dominance rank in a group of cats and the relation between agonistic behavior and the use of resources, including environmental enrichment, in these cats. Design-Observational analytic study. Animals-27 neutered cats in a shelter in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Procedures-The cats were video recorded for 4 consecutive days to obtain baseline data. Subsequently, a puzzle feeder was added as an enrichment device every other day over 8 days, for a total of 4 days with enrichment. Cats were also video recorded on these days. All pretreatment and posttreatment agonistic behaviors and interactions with the puzzle feeder were recorded by reviewing the videotapes. Results-143 agonistic encounters were recorded, of which 44 were related to resources and 99 were not. There were insufficient agonistic interactions to determine a dominance rank. Presence or absence of the puzzle feeder did not affect the rate of aggression. There was no significant effect of weight, sex, or coat color on the rate of aggression, and aggressive behavior did not correlate with time spent with the puzzle feeder. Twenty-three of the 27 cats interacted with the puzzle feeder. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-In a stable group of communally housed cats, environmental enrichment did not cause increased aggression as a result of competition for the source of enrichment. Because environmental enrichment increases the opportunity to perform exploratory behaviors, it may improve the welfare of groups of cats maintained long-term in shelters, sanctuaries, or multicat households. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2011239:796-802)