Precipitation diurnal cycle and summer climatology assessment over South America: An evaluation of Regional Climate Model version 3 simulations

Regional Climate Model version 3 (RegCM3) simulations of 17 summers (1988-2004) over part of South America south of 5 degrees S were evaluated to identify model systematic errors. Model results were compared to different rainfall data sets (Climate Research Unit (CRU), Climate Prediction Center (CPC), Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP), and National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis), including the five summers mean (1998-2002) precipitation diurnal cycle observed by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)-Precipitation Radar (PR). In spite of regional differences, the RegCM3 simulates the main observed aspects of summer climatology associated with the precipitation (northwest-southeast band of South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ)) and air temperature (warmer air in the central part of the continent and colder in eastern Brazil and the Andes Mountains). At a regional scale, the main RegCM3 failures are the underestimation of the precipitation in the northern branch of the SACZ and some unrealistic intense precipitation around the Andes Mountains. However, the RegCM3 seasonal precipitation is closer to the fine-scale analyses (CPC, CRU, and TRMM-PR) than is the NCEP reanalysis, which presents an incorrect north-south orientation of SACZ and an overestimation of its intensity. The precipitation diurnal cycle observed by TRMM-PR shows pronounced contrasts between Tropics and Extratropics and land and ocean, where most of these features are simulated by RegCM3. The major similarities between the simulation and observation, especially the diurnal cycle phase, are found over the continental tropical and subtropical SACZ regions, which present afternoon maximum (1500-1800 UTC) and morning minimum (0900-1200 UTC). More specifically, over the core of SACZ, the phase and amplitude of the simulated precipitation diurnal cycle are very close to the TRMM-PR observations. Although there are amplitude differences, the RegCM3 simulates the observed nighttime rainfall in the eastern Andes Mountains, over the Atlantic Ocean, and also over northern Argentina. The main simulation deficiencies are found in the Atlantic Ocean and near the Andes Mountains. Over the Atlantic Ocean the convective scheme is not triggered; thus the rainfall arises from the grid-scale scheme and therefore differs from the TRMM-PR. Near the Andes, intense (nighttime and daytime) simulated precipitation could be a response of an incorrect circulation and topographic uplift. Finally, it is important to note that unlike most reported bias of global models, RegCM3 does not trigger the moist convection just after sunrise over the southern part of the Amazon.

Petrology and geochemistry of the banded iron formation in the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas of San Luis (Argentina): Implications for the evolution of the Nogoli Metamorphic Complex

The metamorphosed banded iron formation from the Nogoli Metamorphic Complex of western Sierra de San Luis, Eastern Sierras Pampeanas of Argentina (Nogoli area, 32 degrees 55`S-66 degrees 15`W) is classified as an oxide facies iron formation of Algoma Type, with a tectonic setting possibly associated with an island arc or back arc, on the basis of field mapping, mineral and textural arrangements and whole rock geochemical features. The origin of banded iron formation is mainly related to chemical precipitation of hydrogenous sediments from seawater in oceanic environments. The primary chemical precipitate is a result of solutions that represent mixtures of seawater and hydrothermal fluids, with significant dilution by maficultramafic volcanic and siliciclastic materials. Multi-stage T(DM) model ages of 1670, 1854 and 1939 Ma and positive, mantle-like xi Nd((1502)) values of +3.8, +1.5 and +0.5 from the banded iron formation are around the range of those mafic to ultramafic meta-volcanic rocks of Nogoli Metamorphic Complex, which are between 1679 and 1765 Ma and +2.64 and +3.68, respectively. This Sm and Nd isotopic connection suggests a close genetic relationship between ferruginous and mafic-ultramafic meta-volcanic rocks, as part of the same island arc or back arc setting. A previous Sm-Nd whole rock isochron of similar to 1.5 Ga performed on mafic-ultramafic meta-volcanic rocks led to the interpretation that chemical sedimentation as old as Mesoproterozoic is possible for the banded iron formation. A clockwise P-T path can be inferred for the regional metamorphic evolution of the banded iron formation, with three distinctive trajectories: (1) Relict prograde M(1)-M(3) segment with gradual P and T increase from greenschist facies at M(1) to amphibolite facies at M(3). (2) Peak P-T conditions at high amphibolite-low granulite facies during M(4). (3) Retrograde counterpart of M(4), that returns from amphibolite facies and stabilizes at greenschist facies during M(5). Each trajectory may be regarded as produced by different tectonic events related to the Pampean? (1) and the Famatinian (2 and 3) orogenies, during the Early to Middle Paleozoic. The Nogoli Metamorphic Complex is interpreted as part of a greenstone belt within the large Meso- to Neoproterozoic Pampean Terrane of the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas of Argentina. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Epigean and subterranean ichthyofauna in Cordisburgo karst area, eastern Brazil

After an ichthyofaunistic survey conducted in May 2007 on surface (epigean) water bodies of Cordisburgo karst area, State of Minas Gerais, 13 species were recorded, mostly characiforms; in addition three non-troglomorphic (normally eyed and pigmented) and one troglomorphic catfish (siluriforms) species were recorded in two caves surveyed at different occasions, totaling 17 fish species for the area. All the nominal species herein reported for Cordisburgo area have been previously reported for the Rio das Velhas basin. None of the species observed in caves were found in epigean habitats and vice-versa. The four cave species are distributed throughout subterranean stream reaches, with individuals at different size/age classes. This, associated to the lack of conspicuous morphological differences in relation to epigean congeners, indicate that Trichomycterus brasiliensis, Gymnotus cf. carapo and Pimelodella cf. vittata are troglophiles (species encompassing individuals able to live and complete their life cycle either in the surface or in the subterranean environment) in the Morena Cave; the latter forms a large population and may be at the beginning of a differentiation process due to isolation in the subterranean habitat, as indicated by a slight reduction in eye size. Topographic isolation may be the cause for the incipient, but unmistakable troglomorphism of the Rhamdiopsis population found in the Salitre Cave, allowing for its classification as troglobite (exclusively subterranean species). The Cordisburgo area is subject to significant anthropic pressure, mainly represented by deforestation for agriculture, cattle raising and timbering. Tourism is an additional important threat for cave communities, calling for urgent protection measures.

Habitat suitability of Anopheles vector species and association with human malaria in the Atlantic Forest in south-eastern Brazil

Every year, autochthonous cases of Plasmodium vivax malaria occur in low-endemicity areas of Vale do Ribeira in the south-eastern part of the Atlantic Forest, state of São Paulo, where Anopheles cruzii and Anopheles bellator are considered the primary vectors. However, other species in the subgenus Nyssorhynchus of Anopheles (e.g., Anopheles marajoara) are abundant and may participate in the dynamics of malarial transmission in that region. The objectives of the present study were to assess the spatial distribution of An. cruzii, An. bellator and An. marajoara and to associate the presence of these species with malaria cases in the municipalities of the Vale do Ribeira. Potential habitat suitability modelling was applied to determine both the spatial distribution of An. cruzii, An. bellator and An. marajoara and to establish the density of each species. Poisson regression was utilized to associate malaria cases with estimated vector densities. As a result, An. cruzii was correlated with the forested slopes of the Serra do Mar, An. bellator with the coastal plain and An. marajoara with the deforested areas. Moreover, both An. marajoara and An. cruzii were positively associated with malaria cases. Considering that An. marajoara was demonstrated to be a primary vector of human Plasmodium in the rural areas of the state of Amapá, more attention should be given to the species in the deforested areas of the Atlantic Forest, where it might be a secondary vector.

New Species of Eugenia sect. Racemosae (Myrtaceae) from the Atlantic Forest, Eastern Brazil

Morphological characters support the description of four new species of Eugenia L sect. Racemosae O. Berg (Myrtaceae) from Brazilian Atlantic Forest. The new species are described, illustrated, and compared with putatively related species. They are: E. brunneopubescens Mazine from Parana, E. capixaba Mazine from Espirito San to, E. costatifructa Mazine from Bahia and Sergipe, and E. longibracteata Mazine from Sao Paulo.

Systematic review of genus Cerradomys Weksler, percequillo and Voss, 2006 (Rodentia : Cricetidae : Sigmodontinae : Oryzomyini), with description of two new species from eastern Brazil

Cerradomy's is a monophyletic genus that includes four known species, Cerradomys subflavus, C maracajuensis, C. marinhus, and C. scotti, distributed throughout the open vegetation belt across South America, from northeastern Brazil to southeastern Bolivia, and from eastern to northwestern Paraguay. We revised the status of the species currently assigned to this genus by analyzing skins, skulls, karyotypes, and cytochrome b DNA sequences. We also described two novel species, one distributed in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Bahia, and Sergipe, and the other in the states of Paraiba, Pernambuco, Piaui, Ceara, and Maranhao. Molecular analysis suggested the following phylogenetics arrangement: (((C. subflavus-C. sp.n.2) C. sp.n.1) C scotti)(C. marinhus-C. maracajuensis)). Apparently, both novel species inhabit the Caatinga domain and penetrated the coastal Atlantic rainforest, differing from the remaining congeneric species that are typical open-area inhabitants.

Group I introns and associated homing endonuclease genes reveals a clinal structure for Porphyra spiralis var. amplifolia (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) along the Eastern coast of South America

Background: Group I introns are found in the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (SSU rDNA) of some species of the genus Porphyra (Bangiales, Rhodophyta). Size polymorphisms in group I introns has been interpreted as the result of the degeneration of homing endonuclease genes (HEG) inserted in peripheral loops of intron paired elements. In this study, intron size polymorphisms were characterized for different Porphyra spiralis var. amplifolia (PSA) populations on the Southern Brazilian coast, and were used to infer genetic relationships and genetic structure of these PSA populations, in addition to cox2-3 and rbcL-S regions. Introns of different sizes were tested qualitatively for in vitro self-splicing. Results: Five intron size polymorphisms within 17 haplotypes were obtained from 80 individuals representing eight localities along the distribution of PSA in the Eastern coast of South America. In order to infer genetic structure and genetic relationships of PSA, these polymorphisms and haplotypes were used as markers for pairwise Fst analyses, Mantel's test and median joining network. The five cox2-3 haplotypes and the unique rbcL-S haplotype were used as markers for summary statistics, neutrality tests Tajima's D and Fu's Fs and for median joining network analyses. An event of demographic expansion from a population with low effective number, followed by a pattern of isolation by distance was obtained for PSA populations with the three analyses. In vitro experiments have shown that introns of different lengths were able to self-splice from pre-RNA transcripts. Conclusion: The findings indicated that degenerated HEGs are reminiscent of the presence of a full-length and functional HEG, once fixed for PSA populations. The cline of HEG degeneration determined the pattern of isolation by distance. Analyses with the other markers indicated an event of demographic expansion from a population with low effective number. The different degrees of degeneration of the HEG do not refrain intron self-splicing. To our knowledge, this was the first study to address intraspecific evolutionary history of a nuclear group I intron; to use nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA for population level analyses of Porphyra; and intron size polymorphism as a marker for population genetics.

A New Genus of Microteiid Lizard from the Caparao Mountains, Southeastern Brazil, with a Discussion of Relationships among Gymnophthalminae (Squamata)

A new genus and species of microteiid lizard is described based on a series of specimens obtained at Parque Nacional do Caparao (20 degrees 28'S, 41 degrees 49'W), southeastern Brazil, along the division line between the States of Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo. The new lizard occurs in isolated high-altitude, open, rocky habitats above the altitudinal lit-nits of the Atlantic forest. It is characterized by the presence of prefrontals, frontoparietals, parietals, interparietal, and occipital scales; ear opening and eyelid distinct; three pairs of genials; absence of collar; lanceolate and mucronate dorsal scales; six regular transverse and longitudinal series of smooth ventrals that are longer than wide, with the lateral ones narrower. Maximum parsimony (MP) and partitioned Bayesian (PBA) phylogenetic analyses based on morphological and molecular characters with all known genera of Gymnophthalminae (except for Scriptosaura) Plus Rhachisaurus recovered this new lizard in a clade having Colobodactylus and Heterodactylus as its closest relatives. Both analyses recovered the monophyly of Gymnophthalminae and Gymnophthalmini. The monophyly of the Heterodactylini received moderate support in MP analyses but was not recovered in PBA. To eliminate classification controversy between these results, the present concept of Heterodactylini is restricted to accommodate the new genus, Colobodactylus and Heterodactylus, and a new tribe Iphisiini is proposed to allocate Alexandresaurus, Iphisa, Colobosaura, Acratosaura, and Stenolepis. Current phylogenetic knowledge of Gymnophthalminae suggests that fossoriality and increase of body elongation arose as adaptive responses to avoid extreme surface temperatures, either cold or hot, depending on circumstances.

Surface plasmon resonance of gold nanoparticles formed by cathodic arc plasma ion implantation into polymer

Shallow subsurface layers of gold nanoclusters were formed in polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) polymer by very low energy (49 eV) gold ion implantation. The ion implantation process was modeled by computer simulation and accurately predicted the layer depth and width. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to image the buried layer and individual nanoclusters; the layer width was similar to 6-8 nm and the cluster diameter was similar to 5-6 nm. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorption effects were observed by UV-visible spectroscopy. The TEM and SPR results were related to prior measurements of electrical conductivity of Au-doped PMMA, and excellent consistency was found with a model of electrical conductivity in which either at low implantation dose the individual nanoclusters are separated and do not physically touch each other, or at higher implantation dose the nanoclusters touch each other to form a random resistor network (percolation model). (C) 2009 American Vacuum Society. [DOI: 10.1116/1.3231449]

Anthropogenic carbon distribution in the eastern South Pacific Ocean

We present results of the CO(2)/carbonate system from the BIOSOPE cruise in the Eastern South Pacific Ocean, in an area not sampled previously. In particular, we present estimates of the anthropogenic carbon (C(ant)(TrOCA)) distribution in the upper 1000m of this region using the TrOCA method. The highest concentrations of C(ant)(TrOCA) found around 13 degrees S, 132 degrees W and 32 degrees S, 91 degrees W, are higher than 80 mu mol.kg(-)1 and 70 mu mol.kg(-1), respectively. The lowest concentrations are observed below 800m depth (<= 2 mu mol.kg(-1)) and within the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ), mainly around 140 degrees W (< 11 mu mol.kg(-1)). As a result of the anthropogenic carbon penetration there has been decrease in pH by over 0.1 on an average in the upper 200 m. This work further improves our understanding on the penetration of anthropogenic carbon in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.

Biomass burning in Brazil`s Amazonian ""arc of deforestation"": Burning efficiency and charcoal formation in a fire after mechanized clearing at Feliz Natal, Mato Grosso

Estimates of greenhouse-gas emissions from deforestation are highly uncertain because of high variability in key parameters and because of the limited number of studies providing field measurements of these parameters. One such parameter is burning efficiency, which determines how much of the original forest`s aboveground carbon stock will be released in the burn, as well as how much will later be released by decay and how much will remain as charcoal. In this paper we examined the fate of biomass from a semideciduous tropical forest in the ""arc of deforestation,"" where clearing activity is concentrated along the southern edge of the Amazon forest. We estimated carbon content, charcoal formation and burning efficiency by direct measurements (cutting and weighing) and by line-intersect sampling (LIS) done along the axis of each plot before and after burning of felled vegetation. The total aboveground dry biomass found here (219.3 Mg ha(-1)) is lower than the values found in studies that have been done in other parts of the Amazon region. Values for burning efficiency (65%) and charcoal formation (6.0%, or 5.98 Mg C ha(-1)) were much higher than those found in past studies in tropical areas. The percentage of trunk biomass lost in burning (49%) was substantially higher than has been found in previous studies. This difference may be explained by the concentration of more stems in the smaller diameter classes and the low humidity of the fuel (the dry season was unusually long in 2007, the year of the burn). This study provides the first measurements of forest burning parameters for a group of forest types that is now undergoing rapid deforestation. The burning parameters estimated here indicate substantially higher burning efficiency than has been found in other Amazonian forest types. Quantification of burning efficiency is critical to estimates of trace-gas emissions from deforestation. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Characterisation of electric arc furnace dust generated during plain carbon steel production

Electric arc furnace (EAF) dust is a waste generated in the EAF during the steel production process. Among different wastes, EAF dust represents one of the most hazardous, since it contains heavy metals such as Zn, Fe, Cr, Cd and Pb. The goal of the present work is to characterise the waste through chemical analysis, particle size distribution, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy detection and thermal analysis. The waste sample is composed essentially of spherical particles and has a very small particle size and the majority of the identified elements were Fe, Zn, Ca, Cr, Mn, K and Si. The XRD has presented compounds such as ZnO, ZnFe2O4, Fe2O3, MnO, SiO2, FeFe2O4 and MnAl2O4. According to the thermal analysis results, up to 1000 degrees C the total weight loss was similar to 5%. The results of waste characterisation are very important to these further investigations.

A Model for comparing reduced impact logging with conventional logging for an Eastern Amazonian Forest

Using data from a logging experiment in the eastern Brazilian Amazon region, we develop a matrix growth and yield model that captures the dynamic effects of harvest system choice on forest structure and composition. Multinomial logistic regression is used to estimate the growth transition parameters for a 10-year time step, while a Poisson regression model is used to estimate recruitment parameters. The model is designed to be easily integrated with an economic model of decisionmaking to perform tropical forest policy analysis. The model is used to compare the long-run structure and composition of a stand arising from the choice of implementing either conventional logging techniques or more carefully planned and executed reduced-impact logging (RIL) techniques, contrasted against a baseline projection of an unlogged forest. Results from log and leave scenarios show that a stand logged according to Brazilian management requirements will require well over 120 years to recover its initial commercial volume, regardless of logging technique employed. Implementing RIL, however, accelerates this recovery. Scenarios imposing a 40-year cutting cycle raise the possibility of sustainable harvest volumes, although at significantly lower levels than is implied by current regulations. Meeting current Brazilian forest policy goals may require an increase in the planned total area of permanent production forest or the widespread adoption of silvicultural practices that increase stand recovery and volume accumulation rates after RIL harvests. Published by Elsevier B.V.

KuhlmanniodendronFiaschi & Groppo, a new eastern Brazilian genus of Achariaceae sensu lato segregated from Carpotroche Endl. (formerly included in Flacourtiaceae)

Kuhlmanniodendron Fiaschi & Groppo, a new genus of the tribe Lindackerieae (Achariaceae sensu lato) is created to accommodate Carpotroche apterocarpa Kuhlm, a species previously described based on incomplete floriferous and fruiting material from the rainforests of Espirito Santo state, eastern Brazil. The genus is defined by a unique set of character states, including leaves with Clusia-like venation and scaly trichomes, flowers with glabrous stamen filaments and three free styles, and indehiscent fruits with a smooth surface (sometimes with vertical ribs when dried). A description and illustration are provided, with comments on geographical distribution, phenology and generic relationships, and an emended key to neotropical genera of Lindackerieae. (c) 2008 The Linnean Society of London.

A new species of Almeidea (Galipeinae, Galipeeae, Rutaceae) from Eastern Brazil

A new species of Almeidea (Rutaceae) belonging to the neotropical tribe Galipeeae (subtribe Galipeinae) is described and illustrated. This new species, Almeidea albiflora, is known so far only from a few collections made in small disturbed forest remnants in the vicinity of Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, in the state of Espirito Santo, and by a single collection from northern Rio de Janeiro state, both in the domain of the Atlantic Forest, Eastern Brazil. Diagnostic features, like white petals, sericeous ovary and distal secondary axes as long as the proximal ones are identified. Pollen morphology is also described, and brief discussions of the relationships of the new taxon to other species of Almeidea, as well as comments on its conservation status, are provided.