New approaches to underground systems in Brazilian Smilax species (Smilacaceae)

MARTINS, A. R. (Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas - UNICAMP, 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil), N. PUT, (Division of Biology and Education, University of Vechta, 49377 Vechta, Germany), A. N. SOARES, A.B BOMB, and B. APPEZZATO DA GLORIA (Biological Science Department, Escola Superior de Agricultura `Luiz de Queiroz`, University of Sao Paulo, 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil). J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 137: 220-235. 2010.-New approaches to underground systems in Brazilian Smilax species (Smilacaceae). Scientific studies show that the watery extract of the thickened underground stem and its adventitious roots of the genus Smilax can act as a therapeutic agent in immunoinflammatory disorders, such as rheumatic arthritis. Brazilians have used this genus of plants in folk medicine, however it is very hard to identify these species, since the morphology of the underground systems is very similar in this group. For better identification of those systems, we studied six species of Smilax L. (S. brasiliensis, S. campestris, S. cissoides, S. goyazana, S. oblongifolia and S. rufescens), collected in different regions of Brazil with different physiognomies and soil characteristics. The main purpose is to describe the morpho-anatomy of the underground systems and to analyze if their structure depends on environmental conditions. The underground stem (rhizophore) is of brown color and it is knotty, massive, slender (S. rufescens) or tuberous (S. brasiliensis, S. campestris, S. cissoides, S. goyazana and S. oblongifolia). The tuberization is a result of primary thickened meristem (PTM) activity. The color and thickness of the adventitious roots change during development because the epidermis and outer cortex are disposed of, so the inner cortex becomes the new covering tissue with lignified and dark color cells. There are differences in starch grain shapes in mature roots. The chemical attributes of the soil are very similar in all studied environments and, even when soil characteristics varied, all the species` underground system was distributed close to the soil surface (10 to 15 cm deep). The species exhibited clonal growth hence their underground system functions as storage structures and the axillary buds can sprout into new stems. Only Smilax rufescens, collected in sandy soil of Restinga, has vegetative dispersal due to the runners.

Spatio-temporal variability behavior of land surface soil water content in shrub- and grass-land

The knowledge of the relationship between spatial variability of the surface soil water content (theta) and its mean across a spatial domain (theta(m)) is crucial for hydrological modeling and understanding soil water dynamics at different scales. With the aim to compare the soil moisture dynamics and variability between the two land uses and to explore the relationship between the spatial variability of theta and theta(m), this study analyzed sets of surface theta measurements performed with an impedance soil moisture probe, collected 136 times during a period of one year in two transects covering different land uses, i.e., korshinsk peashrub transect (KPT) and bunge needlegrass transect (BNT), in a watershed of the Loess Plateau, China. Results showed that the temporal pattern of theta behaved similarly for the two land uses, with both relative wetter soils during wet period and relative drier soils during dry period recognized in BNT. Soil moisture tended to be temporally stable among different dates, and more stable patterns could be observed for dates with more similar soil water conditions. The magnitude of the spatial variation of theta in KPT was greater than that in ENT. For both land uses, the standard deviation (SD) of theta in general increased as theta(m) increased, a behavior that could be well described with a natural logarithmic function. Convex relationship of CV and theta(m) and the maximum CV for both land uses (43.5% in KPT and 41.0% in BNT) can, therefore, be ascertained. Geostatistical analysis showed that the range in KPT (9.1 m) was shorter than that in BNT (15.1 m). The nugget effects, the structured variability, hence the total variability increased as theta(m) increased. For both land uses, the spatial dependency in general increased with increasing theta(m). 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Assessing the effects of early silvicultural management on long-term site productivity of fast-growing eucalypt plantations: the Brazilian experience

Eucalyptus is the dominant and most productive planted forest in Brazil, covering around 3.4 million ha for the production of charcoal, pulp, sawtimber, timber plates, wood foils, plywood and for building purposes. At the early establishment of the forest plantations, during the second half of the 1960s, the eucalypt yield was 10 m(3) ha(-1) y(-1). Now, as a result of investments in research and technology, the average productivity is 38 m3 ha(-1) y(-1). The productivity restrictions are related to the following environmental factors, in order of importance: water deficits > nutrient deficiency > soil depth and strength. The clonal forests have been fundamental in sites with larger water and nutrient restrictions, where they out-perform those established from traditional seed-based planting stock. When the environmental limitations are small the productivities of plantations based on clones or seeds appear to be similar. In the long term there are risks to sustainability, because of the low fertility and low reserves of primary minerals in the soils, which are, commonly, loamy and clayey oxisols and ultisols. Usually, a decline of soil quality is caused by management that does not conserve soil and site resources, damages soil physical and chemical characteristics, and insufficient or unbalanced fertiliser management. The problem is more serious when fast-growing genotypes are planted, which have a high nutrient demand and uptake capacity, and therefore high nutrient output through harvesting. The need to mobilise less soil by providing more cover and protection, reduce the nutrient and organic matter losses, preserve crucial physical properties as permeability ( root growth, infiltration and aeration), improve weed control and reduce costs has led to a progressive increase in the use of minimum cultivation practices during the last 20 years, which has been accepted as a good alternative to keep or increase site quality in the long term. In this paper we provide a synthesis and critical appraisal of the research results and practical implications of early silvicultural management on long-term site productivity of fast-growing eucalypt plantations arising from the Brazilian context.

What loggers leave behind: Impacts on big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) commercial populations and potential for post-logging recovery in the Brazilian Amazon

The sustainability of current harvest practices for high-value Meliaceae can be assessed by quantifying logging intensity and projecting growth and survival by post-logging populations over anticipated intervals between harvests. From 100%-area inventories of big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) covering 204 ha or more at eight logged and unlogged forest sites across southern Brazilian Amazonia, we report generally higher landscape-scale densities and smaller population-level mean diameters in eastern forests compared to western forests, where most commercial stocks survive. Density of trees >= 20 cm diameter varied by two orders of magnitude and peaked at 1.17 ha(-1). Size class frequency distributions appeared unimodal at two high-density sites, but were essentially arnodal or flat elsewhere; diameter increment patterns indicate that populations were multi- or all-aged. At two high-density sites, conventional logging removed 93-95% of commercial trees (>= 45 cm diameter at the time of logging), illegally eliminated 31-47% of sub-merchantable trees, and targeted trees as small as 20 cm diameter. Projected recovery by commercial stems during 30 years after conventional logging represented 9.9-37.5% of initial densities and was highly dependent on initial logging intensity and size class frequency distributions of commercial trees. We simulated post-logging recovery over the same period at all sites according to the 2003 regulatory framework for mahogany in Brazil, which raised the minimum diameter cutting limit to 60 cm and requires retention during the first harvest of 20% of commercial-sized trees. Recovery during 30 years ranged from approximately 0 to 31% over 20% retention densities at seven of eight sites. At only one site where sub-merchantable trees dominated the population did the simulated density of harvestable stems after 30 years exceed initial commercial densities. These results indicate that 80% harvest intensity will not be sustainable over multiple cutting cycles for most populations without silvicultural interventions ensuring establishment and long-term growth of artificial regeneration to augment depleted natural stocks, including repeated tending of outplanted seedlings. Without improved harvest protocols for mahogany in Brazil as explored in this paper, future commercial supplies of this species as well as other high-value tropical timbers are endangered. Rapid changes in the timber industry and land-use in the Amazon are also significant challenges to sustainable management of mahogany. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Reproductive Activity and Survivorship of Liriomyza sativae (Diptera: Agromyzidae) at Different Temperatures and Relative Humidity Levels

We studied a population of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) identified by morphological and molecular techniques from the semiarid region of the Brazilian northeast. The influence of temperature and relative humidity on the survival and reproductive parameters of L. sativae in cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) (Fabales: Fabaceae) was evaluated. We used temperatures of 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, and 32 +/- 1 degrees C (50 +/- 10% RH) and relative humidity values of 30,50,70, and 90 +/- 10% (25 +/- 1 degrees C) under a 14 L:10 D photoperiod. Adult longevity decreased as temperature and relative humidity increased and was greater, in general, for females. The preoviposition and oviposition periods also decreased as temperature increased, whereas relative humidity only caused reductions in the oviposition period at higher levels. Fecundity was similar in the range from 18 to 30 degrees C but decreased at 32 degrees C with respect to relative humidity; the best performances of L. sativae occurred at lower levels. The pattern of oviposition rate changed with temperature and relative humidity. Regardless of temperature and relative humidity, L, sativae laid between 75 and 92% of its eggs on the adaxial surface of the cowpea leaves. This information will be highly useful to design a leafminer production system aimed at the multiplication of natural enemies, as well as for pest management in the field.

EVALUATION OF FIVE SUGAR CANE PLANTERS

Brazil is the world biggest producer of sugar cane with an area of 7x10(6) hectares. Mainly the system used for planting is the semi-mechanized one, which consists in opening the furrows with a machine, manually allocating the fractioned stalks and then covering the furrows done by the machines. The great amount of human labor used in the semi-mechanized system is becoming harder to find and also more expensive, indicating the need of a fully mechanized operation. Currently in Brazil these agriculture machines industries offers six different types of fully mechanized sugar cane planters (two types of whole stalks for planting and four using mechanized harvested stalks known as billets). All of them plant in two furrows simultaneously in 1.5 m row spacing. This study analyzed five different machines and the following variables: Working Speed (km h(-1)); Effective Capacity (ha h(-1)), Drawbar Force (kgf), Draw Bar Power (in HP), Fuel Consumption (L h(-1)) and Costs (US$ ha(-1)) comparing them with the semi-mechanized system. This research also characterized the stalks for planting as viable gems number (%), non viable gems number (%) and billet length (m). And lastly the mechanized planting system is cheaper than the conventional one and none of the machines has an adequate mechanism for placing the right amount of sugar cane seed.

Economic feasibility of cowpea irrigation in Piaui State

The objective of this work was to evaluate the economic feasibility of cowpea irrigation in Piaui State Brazil. Water balances were carried out on a daily basis using the Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) method, for 165 sites, considering twelve sowings dates and available water capacity in the soil of 20, 40 and 60 mm. The net revenues were estimated with a probability of occurrence of 75%, later being spatialized to Piaui State. Cowpea irrigation was shown to economically viable for all sowing dates, irrespective of the available water capacity. Net revenues varied among several regions of the State, in function of the sowing date and available water capacity in the soil. Considering a planning strategy for Piaui State, sowing on February, I was shown to be most favorable, because it enabled higher net revenue values, covering larger areas of the State.

Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum) Extracts Obtained by Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE): Global Yields, Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Estimation of the Cost of Manufacturing

In this work, supercritical technology was used to obtain extracts from Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil) with CO(2) and the cosolvent H(2)O at 1, 10, and 20% (w/w). The raw material was obtained from hydroponic cultivation. The extract`s global yield isotherms, chemical compositions, antioxidant activity, and cost of manufacturing were determined. The extraction assays were done for pressures of 10 to 30 MPa at 303 to 323 K. The identification of the compounds present in the extracts was made by GC-MS and ESI-MS. The antioxidant activity of extracts was determined using the coupled reaction of beta-carotene and linolenic acid. At 1% of cosolvent, the largest global yield was obtained at 10 MPa and 303 K (2%, dry basis-d.b.); at 10% of cosolvent the largest global yield was obtained at 10 and 15 MPa (11%, d.b.), and at 20% of cosolvent the largest global yield was detected at 30 MPa and 303 K (24%, d.b.). The main components identified in the extracts were eugenol, germacrene-D, epi-alpha-cadinol, malic acid, tartaric acid, ramnose, caffeic acid, quinic acid, kaempferol, caffeoylquinic acid, and kaempferol 3-O-glucoside. Sweet basil extracts exhibited high antioxidant activity compared to beta-carotene. Three types of SFE extracts from sweet basil were produced, for which the estimated cost of manufacturing (class 5 type) varied from US$ 47.96 to US$ 1,049.58 per kilogram of dry extract.

Digestibility of plant protein-based diets by largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides

Commercial farming of carnivorous fish demands the reduction of environmental impact of feeds; that requires minimal use of dietary animal protein. This study investigated the digestibility of diets formulated exclusively out of plant protein, added feed attractants, by the carnivore largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides. Juvenile largemouth bass (14.0 +/- 1.0 cm) conditioned to accept artificial, dry feed were confined in polypropylene cages and fed ad libitum in three daily meals, seven experimental diets containing varying levels of vegetable and animal protein sources, added of different feed stimulants. After last daily meal, cages were transferred to cylindrical-conical-bottomed, 200-L aquaria, where faeces were collected by sedimentation into refrigerated containers, preserved and later analysed for chemical composition. Soybean meal can be used as partial substitute of animal protein in diets for largemouth bass; the poultry by-product meal shows as a good option as animal protein source in these rations. Control treatment - 50PP : 50AP - yielded best performances; the need for the use of fish meal in the formulation for carnivorous diets is, at least, questionable. Results of the digestibility trials demonstrated the importance of determining the diet digestibility, if precision in the formulation of least-cost feeds for carnivorous fish is the ultimate goal.

Large-scale ecological restoration of high-diversity tropical forests in SE Brazil

The complex interactions among endangered ecosystems, landowners` interests, and different models of land tenure and use, constitute an important series of challenges for those seeking to maintain and restore biodiversity and augment the flow of ecosystem services. Over the past 10 years, we have developed a data-based approach to address these challenges and to achieve medium and large-scale ecological restoration of riparian areas on private lands in the state of Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil. Given varying motivations for ecological restoration, the location of riparian areas within landholdings, environmental zoning of different riparian areas, and best-practice restoration methods were developed for each situation. A total of 32 ongoing projects, covering 527,982 ha, were evaluated in large sugarcane farms and small mixed farms, and six different restoration techniques have been developed to help upscale the effort. Small mixed farms had higher portions of land requiring protection as riparian areas (13.3%), and lower forest cover of riparian areas (18.3%), than large sugarcane farms (10.0% and 36.9%, respectively for riparian areas and forest cover values). In both types of farms, forest fragments required some degree of restoration. Historical anthropogenic degradation has compromised forest ecosystem structure and functioning, despite their high-diversity of native tree and shrub species. Notably, land use patterns in riparian areas differed markedly. Large sugarcane farms had higher portions of riparian areas occupied by highly mechanized agriculture, abandoned fields, and anthropogenic wet fields created by siltation in water courses. In contrast, in small mixed crop farms, low or non-mechanized agriculture and pasturelands were predominant. Despite these differences, plantations of native tree species covering the entire area was by far the main restoration method needed both by large sugarcane farms (76.0%) and small mixed farms (92.4%), in view of the low resilience of target sites, reduced forest cover, and high fragmentation, all of which limit the potential for autogenic restoration. We propose that plantations should be carried out with a high-diversity of native species in order to create biologically viable restored forests, and to assist long-term biodiversity persistence at the landscape scale. Finally, we propose strategies to integrate the political, socio-economic and methodological aspects needed to upscale restoration efforts in tropical forest regions throughout Latin America and elsewhere. (C) 2010 Elsevier BA/. All rights reserved.

Quorum sensing detected by atomic force microscopy imaging of corrals surrounding multicellular arrangement of bacteria

Connectivity of the glycocalyx covering of small communities of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans bacteria deposited on hydrophilic mica plates was imaged by atomic force microscopy. When part of the coverage was removed by water rinsing, an insoluble structure formed by corrals surrounding each individual bacterium was observed. A collective ring structure with clustered bacteria (>= 3) was observed, which indicates that the bacteria perceived the neighborhood in order to grow a protective structure that results in smaller production of exopolysaccharides material. The most surprising aspect of these collective corral structures was that they occur at a low bacterial cell density. The deposited layers were also analyzed by confocal Raman microscopy and shown to contain polysaccharides, protein, and glucoronic acid.

Nutritional Aspects of Second Generation Soy Foods

Samples of 15 second generation soy-based products (n = 3), commercially available, were analyzed for their protein and isoflavone contents and in vitro antioxidant activity, by means of the Folin-Ciocalteu reducing ability, DPPH radical scavenging capacity, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity. Isoflavone identification and quantification were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Products containing soy and/or soy-based ingredients represent important sources of protein in addition to the low fat amounts. However, a large variation in isoflavone content and in vitro antioxidant capacity was observed. The isoflavone content varied from 2.4 to 18.1 mg/100 g (FW), and soy kibe and soy sausage presented the highest amounts. Chocolate had the highest antioxidant capacity, but this fact was probably associated with the addition of cocoa liquor, a well-known source of polyphenolics. This study showed that the soy-based foods do not present a significant content of isoflavones when compared with the grain, and their in vitro antioxidant capacity is not related with these compounds but rather to the presence of other phenolics and synthetic antioxidants, such as sodium erythorbate. However, they may represent alternative sources and provide soy protein, isoflavones, and vegetable fat for those who are not ready to eat traditional soy foods.

EVALUATION OF RED CURRANTS (RIBES RUBRUM L.), BLACK CURRANTS (RIBES NIGRUM L.), RED AND GREEN GOOSEBERRIES (RIBES UVA-CRISPA) FOR POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES AND HYPERTENSION USING IN VITRO MODELS

Red currants (Ribes rubrum L.), black currants (Ribes nigrum L.), red and green gooseberries (Ribes uva-crispa) were evaluated for the total phenolics, antioxidant capacity based on 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assay and functionality such as in vitro inhibition of alpha-amylase, alpha-glucosidase and angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) relevant for potential management of hyperglycemia and hypertension. The total phenolics content ranged from 3.2 (green gooseberries) to 13.5 (black currants) mg/g fruit fresh weight. No correlation was found between total phenolics and antioxidant activity. The major phenolic compounds were quercetin derivatives (black currants and green gooseberries) and chlorogenic acid (red currants and red gooseberries). Red currants had the highest alpha-glucosidase, alpha-amylase and ACE inhibitory activities. Therefore red currants could be good dietary sources with potential antidiabetes and antihypertension functionality to compliment overall dietary management of early stages of type 2 diabetes.

Functionality of bioactive compounds in Brazilian strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) cultivars: Evaluation of hyperglycemia and hypertension potential using in vitro models

Fruits of seven fully ripened strawberry cultivars grown in Brazil (Dover, Camp Dover, Camarosa, Sweet Charlie, Toyonoka, Oso Grande, and Piedade) were evaluated for total phenolics, antioxidant activity based on DPPH radical scavenging assay, and functionality such as inhibition of alpha-amylase, alpha-glucosidase, and angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) relevant for potentially managing hyperglycemia and hypertension. The total phenolics content ranged from 966 to 1571 mu g of gallic acid/g of fruit fresh weight for Toyonoka and Dover, respectively. No correlation was found between total phenolics and antioxidant activity. The major phenolic compounds in aqueous extracts of strawberries were ellagic acid, quercetin, and chlorogenic acid. Strawberries had high alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity. However, alpha-amylase inhibitory activity was very low in all cultivars. This suggested that strawberries could be considered as a potential dietary source with anti-hyperglycemic potential. The evaluated cultivars had no significant ACE inhibitory activity, reflecting low anti-hypertensive potential.

Radioresistance of Salmonella species and Listeria monocytogenes on minimally processed arugula (Eruca sativa Mill.): Effect of irradiation on flavonoid content and acceptability of irradiated produce

This work studied the radiation resistance of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella species and the effect of irradiation on leaf flavonoid content and sensory acceptability of minimally processed arugula. Immersion in ozone-treated water reduced the analyzed microorganisms by 1 log. L. monocytogenes and Salmonella were not isolated from samples. Samples of this vegetable were inoculated with a cocktail of Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes and exposed to gamma irradiation. D-10 values for Salmonella ranged from 0.16 to 0.19 kGy and for L. monocytogenes from 0.37 to 0.48 kGy. Kaempferol glycoside levels were 4 and ca. 3 times higher in samples exposed to 1 and 2 kGy, respectively, than in control samples. An increase in quercetin glycoside was also observed mainly in samples exposed to 1 kGy. In sensory evaluation, arugula had good acceptability, even after exposure to 2 and 4 kGy. These results indicate that irradiation has potential as a practical processing step to improve the safety of arugula.