Effects of lycopene on the induction of foam cell formation by modified LDL.

The effect of lycopene on macrophage foam cell formation induced by modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was studied. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDM) were incubated with lycopene in the presence or absence of native LDL (nLDL) or LDL modified by oxidation (oxLDL), aggregation (aggLDL), or acetylation (acLDL). The cholesterol content, lipid synthesis, scavenger receptor activity, and the secretion of inflammatory [interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α] and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines was determined. Lycopene was found to decrease the synthesis of cholesterol ester in incubations without LDL or with oxLDL while triacylglycerol synthesis was reduced in the presence of oxLDL and aggLDL. Scavenger receptor activity as assessed by the uptake of acLDL was decreased by ∼30% by lycopene. In addition, lycopene inhibited IL-10 secretion by up to 74% regardless of the presence of nLDL or aggLDL but did not affect IL-1β or TNF-α release. Lycopene also reduced the relative abundance of mRNA transcripts for scavenger receptor A (SR-A) in THP-1 macrophages treated with aggLDL. These findings suggest that lycopene may reduce macrophage foam cell formation induced by modified LDL by decreasing lipid synthesis and downregulating the activity and expression of SR-A. However, these effects are accompanied by impaired secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, suggesting that lycopene may also exert a concomitant proinflammatory effect.

The induction of macrophages foam cell formation by chylomicron remnants

The accumulation of foam cells in the artery wall causes fatty streaks, the first lesions in atherosclerosis. LDL (low-density lipoprotein) plays a major role in foam cell formation, although prior oxidation of the particles is required. Recent studies, however, have provided considerable evidence to indicate that CMRs (chylomicron remnants), which carry dietary lipids in the blood, induce foam cell formation without oxidation. We have shown that CMRs are taken up by macrophages and induce accumulation of both triacylglycerol and cholesterol, and that the rate of uptake and amount of lipid accumulated is influenced by the type of dietary fat in the particles. Furthermore, oxidation of CMRs, in striking contrast with LDL, inhibits, rather than enhances, their uptake and induction of lipid accumulation. In addition, the lipid accumulated after exposure of macrophages to CMRs is resistant to efflux, and this may be due to its sequestration in lysosomes. These findings demonstrate that CMRs induce pro-atherogenic changes in macrophages, and that their effects may be modulated by dietary factors including oxidized fats, lipophilic antioxidants and the type of fat present.

Influence of chylomicron remnants on human monocyte activation in vitro

Background and aims Atherosclerosis is known to be an inflammatory disease and there is increasing evidence that chylomicron remnants (CMR), the lipoproteins which carry dietary fats in the blood, cause macrophage foam cell formation and inflammation. In early atherosclerosis the frequency of activated monocytes in the peripheral circulation is increased, and clearance of CMR from blood may be delayed, however, whether CMR contribute directly to monocyte activation and subsequent egress into the arterial wall has not been established. Here, the contribution of CMR to activation of monocyte pro-inflammatory pathways was assessed using an in vitro model. Methods and results Primary human monocytes and CMR-like particles (CRLP) were used to measure several endpoints of monocyte activation. Treatment with CRLP caused rapid and prolonged generation of reactive oxygen species by monocytes. The pro-inflammatory chemokines MCP-1 and IL-8 were secreted in nanogram quantities by the cells in the absence of CRLP. IL-8 secretion was transiently increased after CRLP treatment, and CRLP maintained secretion in the presence of pharmacological inhibitors of IL-8 production. In contrast, exposure to CRLP significantly reduced MCP-1 secretion. Chemotaxis towards MCP-1 was increased in monocytes pre-exposed to CRLP and was reversed by addition of exogenous MCP-1. Conclusion Our findings indicate that CRLP activate human monocytes and augment their migration in vitro by reducing cellular MCP-1 expression. Our data support the current hypothesis that CMR contribute to the inflammatory milieu of the arterial wall in early atherosclerosis, and suggest that this may reflect direct interaction with circulating blood monocytes.

Suppression of nuclear factor-κB activity in macrophages by chylomicron remnants: modulation by the fatty acid composition of the particles

Current evidence indicates that chylomicron remnants (CMR) induce macrophage foam cell formation, an early event in atherosclerosis. Inflammation also plays a part in atherogenesis and the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) has been implicated. In this study, the influence of CMR on the activity of NF-kappaB in macrophages and its modulation by the fatty acid composition of the particles were investigated using macrophages derived from the human monocyte cell line THP-1 and CMR-like particles (CRLPs). Incubation of THP-1 macrophages with CRLPs caused decreased NF-kappaB activation and downregulated the expression of phospho-p65-NF-kappaB and phospho-IkappaBalpha (pIkappaBalpha). Secretion of the inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, which are under NF-kappaB transcriptional control, was inhibited and mRNA expression for cyclooxygenase-2, an NF-kappaB target gene, was reduced. CRLPs enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids compared with saturated or monounsaturated fatty acids had a markedly greater inhibitory effect on NF-kappaB binding to DNA and the expression of phospho-p65-NF-kappaB and pIkappaB. Lipid loading of macrophages with CRLPs enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids compared with monounsaturated fatty acids or saturated fatty acids also increased the subsequent rate of cholesterol efflux, an effect which may be linked to the inhibition of NF-kappaB activity. These findings demonstrate that CMR suppress NF-kappaB activity in macrophages, and that this effect is modulated by their fatty acid composition. This downregulation of inflammatory processes in macrophages may represent a protective effect of CMR which is enhanced by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Fatty acids composition of Chylomicron remnants like particles influences their uptake and induction of lipid accumulation in macrophages.

The influence of the fatty acid composition of chylomicron remnant-like particles (CRLPs) on their uptake and induction of lipid accumulation in macrophages was studied. CRLPs containing triacylglycerol enriched in saturated, monounsaturated, n−6 or n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from palm, olive, corn or fish oil, respectively, and macrophages derived from the human monocyte cell line THP-1 were used. Lipid accumulation (triacylglycerol and cholesterol) in the cells was measured after incubation with CRLPs for 5, 24 and 48 h, and uptake over 24 h was determined using CRLPs radiolabelled with [3H]triolein. Total lipid accumulation in the macrophages was significantly greater with palm CRLPs than with the other three types of particle. This was mainly due to increased triacylglycerol concentrations, whereas changes in cholesterol concentrations did not reach significance. There were no significant differences in lipid accumulation after incubation with olive, corn or fish CRLPs. Palm and olive CRLPs were taken up by the cells at a similar rate, which was considerably faster than that observed with corn and fish CRLPs. These findings demonstrate that CRLPs enriched in saturated or monounsaturated fatty acids are taken up more rapidly by macrophages than those enriched in n−6 or n−3 polunsaturated fatty acids, and that the faster uptake rate results in greater lipid accumulation in the case of saturated fatty acid-rich particles, but not monounsaturated fatty acid-rich particles. Thus, dietary saturated fatty acids carried in chylomicron remnants may enhance their propensity to induce macrophage foam cell formation.