Breaking the silence ceiling: how gender violence became into a social problem in Spain through media and politics

This research presents the explanatory model of the process of reconstruction of the ʺsocial problemʺ of Intimate Partner Violence (I.P.V) in Spain during last five years, with special attention to the role of media in this process. Using a content analysis of the three more diffused general newspapers, a content analysis of the minutes of the Parliament, and the statistics of the police reports and murders, from January of 1997 to December of 2001, it observes the relationship between the evolution of the incidence of Intimate Partner Violence (I.P.V) (measured by the number of deaths and the number of police reports) and the evolution of stories about this topic in press. It also studies the interconnection of the two previous variables with the political answer to the problem (measured by the interventions on the I.P.V. in the Senate and in the Congress). Data shows that, even though police reports have increased due to the contribution of politics and media, I.P.V murders keep on growing up.

Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Spain. A Quantitative Analysis

A growing number of authors have been suggesting the necessary incorporation of children in the analysis of gender violence and, specifically, in the analysis of intimate partner violence against women (IPV). Such incorporation would be relevant not only for reducing children's invisibility and vulnerability, but also for achieving a better understanding of the characteristics and dynamics of IPV. Based on these considerations, we present in this paper the results of a secondary analysis applied to the data obtained in the last Spanish Survey on Violence Against Women. The available information allows us to analyze: 1) the presence of children exposed to IPV, 2) the relationship between this presence and the probability of reporting the violence, and 3) women's perception about the parental role of the aggressors.

Factors Associated with the Cessation of Intimate Partner Violence in Women Attending Primary Care in Spain

This study aimed to identify factors associated with the likelihood of IPV cessation among women attending Spanish primary healthcare. Of the 2465 women who reported lifetime IPV, 36.1 % stated that violence had ceased. Those women not currently abused had higher levels of education and social support, were workers or students, and had no dependent children. When IPV duration was less than 5 years, the likelihood of cessation was two times higher than when IPV continued beyond 5 years. For women who have experienced physical IPV, the probability of ending the violent relationship was 10 times higher than for those suffering from psychological IPV. The implications of the findings regarding clinical significance and future research are discussed.

Factors Associated With Women’s Reporting of Intimate Partner Violence in Spain

In Spain, in 2013, the 20% of women who were murdered by their partner had reported him previously. We analyze the 2011 Spanish-Macrosurvey on Gender Violence to identify and analyze the prevalence of and the principal factors associated with reporting a situation of intimate partner violence (IPV) and the main reasons women cite for not filing such reports, or for subsequently deciding to withdraw their complaint. Overall, 72.8% of women exposed to IPV did not report their aggressor. The most frequent reasons for not reporting were not giving importance to the situation (33.9%), and fear and lack of trust in the reporting process (21.3%). The main reasons for withdrawing the complaint were cessation of the violence (20.0%), and fear and threats (18.2%). The probability of reporting increased among women with young children who were abused, prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval [CI]): 2.14 [1.54, 2.98], and those whose mother was abused, prevalence ratio (95% CI): 2.25 [1.42, 3.57]. Always focusing on the need to protect women who report abuse, it is necessary to promote the availability of and access to legal resources especially among women who use them less: women who do not have children and women who do not have previous family exposure to violence.

Violencia de género en mujeres inmigrantes y españolas: magnitud, respuestas ante el problema y políticas existentes

Objetivo: Comparar la prevalencia de la violencia de género entre mujeres inmigrantes y españolas. Describir sus respuestas ante esta situación y posibles diferencias entre ellas. Identificar intervenciones ya existentes en España sobre prevención y atención sociosanitaria de violencia de género dirigidas a inmigrantes. Métodos: Estudio transversal mediante encuesta autoadministrada en 10.202 mujeres que acudieron a centros de atención primaria en España (2006-2007). Análisis de contenido del informe de seguimiento de la ley 1/2004 de medidas de protección integral contra la violencia de género remitido por las comunidades autónomas (CC.AA.) (2005) y las leyes y planes autonómicos más recientes. Resultados: La prevalencia de violencia de género en las españolas es del 14,3% y en las inmigrantes del 27,3%. La probabilidad de violencia de género en las inmigrantes es mayor (odds ratio ajustada: 2,06; intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1,61–2,64). Las inmigrantes dijeron haber denunciado a su pareja con más frecuencia, así como que no sabían resolver su situación. Algunas CC.AA. ya han emprendido intervenciones para superar las barreras de acceso a los servicios sociosanitarios, pero sólo tres facilitan el número de mujeres inmigrantes beneficiarias de ayudas económicas y laborales hasta 2005. Conclusiones: Existe una desigual distribución en la prevalencia de la violencia de género según el país de origen, afectando en mayor medida a las mujeres inmigrantes. Éstas denuncian con más frecuencia que las españolas, pero tal actuación no supone una garantía de resultados efectivos. Aunque se han identificado otras intervenciones específicas en algunas CC.AA., sería necesario evaluarlas para asegurar que las mujeres inmigrantes se están beneficiando.

Maltrato sexual sobre las mujeres en sus relaciones de pareja: un estudio de caso

Las mujeres que viven una situación de violencia en sus relaciones de pareja pueden verse forzadas por sus parejas masculinas a mantener relaciones sexuales que no desean. El objetivo principal de nuestro trabajo es conocer si existe o ha existido maltrato sexual sobre las mujeres que viven o han vivido una situación de violencia en sus relaciones de pareja. Para lograr este objetivo, hemos elegido un diseño de «estudio de caso», a través del cual analizamos las historias de 14 mujeres que acuden a un servicio de atención psicológica especializado en violencia de género, que refieren vivir o haber vivido maltrato por sus parejas y reciben tratamiento psicológico. Los resultados de nuestro trabajo encuentran que el perfil psicopatológico de las mujeres objeto de nuestro estudio coincide con el encontrado en la bibliografía científica, Sin embargo, hemos encontrado que el porcentaje de mujeres que son forzadas a mantener relaciones sexuales es superior al que indican otras investigaciones.

Infancia y violencia de género: cuantificación y percepciones

Cada vez más autores destacan la necesaria incorporación de la infancia en el estudio de la violencia de género y, en concreto, de la violencia contra la mujer por parte del compañero íntimo (VCI). Tal incorporación puede facilitar no sólo una menor invisibilidad y desprotección de niños y niñas, sino también una mejor comprensión de la propia violencia, sus características y dinámicas. Partiendo de estas consideraciones, en este artículo se presentan los resultados de un análisis secundario de los datos obtenidos en la última macroencuesta sobre violencia contra las mujeres en España. La información disponible permite analizar: 1) la presencia de menores expuestos a VCI; 2) la posible relación entre esta presencia y la formulación de denuncias; y 3) la percepción que tienen las mujeres víctimas de VCI en torno al rol parental de los agresores.

No effect of unemployment on intimate partner-related femicide during the financial crisis: a longitudinal ecological study in Spain

Background: Spain’s financial crisis has been characterized by an increase in unemployment. This increase could have produced an increase in deaths of women due to intimate partner-related femicides (IPF). This study aims to determine whether the increase in unemployment among both sexes in different regions in Spain is related to an increase in the rates of IPF during the current financial crisis period. Methods: An ecological longitudinal study was carried out in Spain’s 17 regions. Two study periods were defined: pre-crisis period (2005–2007) and crisis period (2008–2013). IPF rates adjusted by age and unemployment rates for men and women were calculated. We fitted multilevel linear regression models in which observations at level 1 were nested within regions according to a repeated measurements design. Results: Rates of unemployment have progressively increased in Spain, rising above 20 % from 2008 to 2013 in some regions. IPF rates decreased in some regions during crisis period with respect to pre-crisis period. The multilevel analysis does not support the existence of a significant relationship between the increase in unemployment in men and women and the decrease in IPF since 2008. Discussion: The increase in unemployment in men and women in Spain does not appear to have an effect on IPF. The results of the multilevel analysis discard the hypothesis that the increase in the rates of unemployment in women and men are related to an increase in IPF rates. Conclusions: The decline in IPF since 2008 might be interpreted as the result of exposure to other factors such as the lower frequency of divorces in recent years or the medium term effects of the integral protection measures of the law on gender violence that began in 2005.

Perfil sociodemográfico del feminicidio en España y su relación con las denuncias por violencia de pareja

Objetivo: Analizar las características asociadas al riesgo de feminicidio en España entre mujeres expuestas a la violencia de pareja o análogo y su posible asociación con las denuncias a los agresores. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de casos y controles para el periodo 2010-2011. Los casos, 135 mujeres mayores de edad, asesinadas por su pareja o análogo durante dicho periodo, se identificaron a través de la página web de la Federación de Asociaciones de Mujeres Separadas y Divorciadas, y de los informes del Consejo General del Poder Judicial. Los controles, 185 mujeres expuestas a la violencia de pareja el último año, proceden de la Macroencuesta de Violencia de Género 2011. La asociación entre la denuncia y el riesgo de feminicidio se estimó mediante modelos de regresión logística multivariada. Resultados: No se encontró asociación entre denunciar al agresor y el riesgo de ser asesinada (odds ratio [OR]: 1,38; intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC95%]: 0,68-2,79). Las mujeres inmigrantes expuestas a la violencia de pareja registraron una mayor probabilidad de ser asesinadas (ref.: mujeres españolas; OR: 5,38; IC95%: 2,41-11,99). Esta asociación también se observó en las mujeres que vivían en zonas rurales (ref: zonas urbanas; OR: 2,94; IC95%: 1,36-6,38). Conclusiones: La denuncia judicial al agresor no parece modificar el riesgo de asesinato entre las mujeres expuestas a la violencia de pareja. Las medidas de protección a las mujeres deberían extremarse en las mujeres inmigrantes y las que viven en el medio rural.

Gender sensitivity in national health plans in Latin America and the European Union

Objectives: To evaluate the situation regarding gender sensitivity in national health plans in Latin America and the European Union for the decade 2000–2010. Methods: A systematic search and content analysis of national health plans were carried out within 37 countries. Gender sensitivity, defined as the extent to which a health plan considers gender as a central category and develops measures to reduce any gender-related inequalities, was analysed through an ad hoc checklist. Results: The description of health problems by sex was more frequent than intervention proposals aimed at reducing gender health disparities. The greatest number of specific intervention proposals targeted at overcoming gender-based health inequalities were associated with sexual and/or reproductive health, gender based violence, the working environment and human resources training. Compared to the European Union member states, Latin American health plans were found to be generally more gender sensitive. Conclusions: National health plans are still generally lacking in gender sensitivity. Disparities exist in health policy formulation in favour of men, whilst women's health continues to be identified mainly with reproductive health. If gender sensitivity is not taken into account, efforts to improve the quality of clinical care will be insufficient as gender inequalities will persist.

Barriers and facilitators to effective coverage of Intimate Partner Violence services for immigrant women in Spain

Objective: To explore service providers’ perceptions in order to identify barriers and facilitators to effective coverage of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) services for immigrant women in Spain, according to the different categories proposed in Tanahashi's model of effective coverage. Methods: A qualitative study based on 29 in-depth personal interviews and four group interviews with a total of 43 professionals working in public services (social and health-care services, women's refuges, the police force, the judiciary) and NGOs in Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia and Alicante (Spain) in 2011. Findings: Current IPV services in Spain partially fail in their coverage of abused immigrant women due to barriers of (i) availability, such as the inexistence of culturally appropriate services; (ii) accessibility, as having a residence permit is a prerequisite for women's access to different services and rights; (iii) acceptability, such as women's lack of confidence in the effectiveness of services; and (iv) effectiveness, for example, lack of specific training among professionals on the issues of IPV and immigration. However, interviewees also identified facilitators, such as the enabling environment promoted by the Spanish Law on Gender-Based Violence (1/2004), and the impetus it has provided for the development of other specific legislative tools to address IPV in immigrant populations in Spain (availability, accessibility and effectiveness). Conclusion: Whilst not dismissing cultural barriers, aspects related to service structure are identified by providers as the main barriers and facilitators to immigrant women use of IPV services. Despite noteworthy achievements, improvements are still required in terms of mainstreaming assistance tailored to immigrant women's needs in IPV policies and services.

Intimate partner violence among women in Spain: the impact of regional-level male unemployment and income inequality

Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) against women is a complex worldwide public health problem. There is scarce research on the independent effect on IPV exerted by structural factors such as labour and economic policies, economic inequalities and gender inequality. Objective: To analyse the association, in Spain, between contextual variables of regional unemployment and income inequality and individual women’s likelihood of IPV, independently of the women’s characteristics. Method: We conducted multilevel logistic regression to analyse cross-sectional data from the 2011 Spanish Macrosurvey of Gender-based Violence which included 7898 adult women. The first level of analyses was the individual women’ characteristics and the second level was the region of residence. Results: Of the survey participants, 12.2% reported lifetime IPV. The region of residence accounted for 3.5% of the total variability in IPV prevalence. We determined a direct association between regional male long-term unemployment and IPV likelihood (P = 0.007) and between the Gini Index for the regional income inequality and IPV likelihood (P < 0.001). Women residing in a region with higher gender-based income discrimination are at a lower likelihood of IPV than those residing in a region with low gender-based income discrimination (odds ratio = 0.64, 95% confidence intervals: 0.55–0.75). Conclusions: Growing regional unemployment rates and income inequalities increase women’s likelihood of IPV. In times of economic downturn, like the current one in Spain, this association may translate into an increase in women’s vulnerability to IPV.