Gender inequalities in occupational health related to the unequal distribution of working and employment conditions: a systematic review

Introduction: Gender inequalities exist in work life, but little is known about their presence in relation to factors examined in occupation health settings. The aim of this study was to identify and summarize the working and employment conditions described as determinants of gender inequalities in occupational health in studies related to occupational health published between 1999 and 2010. Methods: A systematic literature review was undertaken of studies available in MEDLINE, EMBASE, Sociological Abstracts, LILACS, EconLit and CINAHL between 1999 and 2010. Epidemiologic studies were selected by applying a set of inclusion criteria to the title, abstract, and complete text. The quality of the studies was also assessed. Selected studies were qualitatively analysed, resulting in a compilation of all differences between women and men in the prevalence of exposure to working and employment conditions and work-related health problems as outcomes. Results: Most of the 30 studies included were conducted in Europe (n=19) and had a cross-sectional design (n=24). The most common topic analysed was related to the exposure to work-related psychosocial hazards (n=8). Employed women had more job insecurity, lower control, worse contractual working conditions and poorer self-perceived physical and mental health than men did. Conversely, employed men had a higher degree of physically demanding work, lower support, higher levels of effort-reward imbalance, higher job status, were more exposed to noise and worked longer hours than women did. Conclusions: This systematic review has identified a set of working and employment conditions as determinants of gender inequalities in occupational health from the occupational health literature. These results may be useful to policy makers seeking to reduce gender inequalities in occupational health, and to researchers wishing to analyse these determinants in greater depth.

Moisture Distribution in Partially Saturated Concrete Studied by Impedance Spectroscopy

The moisture content and its spatial distribution has a great influence on the durability properties of concrete structures. Several non-destructive techniques have been used for the determination of the total water content, but moisture distribution is difficult to determine. In this paper impedance spectroscopy is used to study the water distribution in concrete samples with controlled and homogeneously distributed moisture contents. The technique is suitable for the determination of water distribution inside the sample, using the appropriate equivalent circuits. It is shown that using the selected drying procedures there is no change in the solid phase of the samples, although the technique can only be used for the qualitative study of variations in the solid phase when samples are too thick. The results of this work show that for a wide range of concrete percentages of saturation, from full to 18 % saturation, practically all the pores keep at least a thin layer of electrolyte covering their walls, since the capacitance measurement results are practically independent of the saturation degree.