Worldwide violence against women legislation: an equity approach

OBJECTIVES: To describe the recommendations and interventions addressing violence against women (VAW) in vulnerable women (disabled, pregnant, ethnic minority, immigrant and older women) in key documents and laws enacted in different countries. METHODS: Content analysis of key documents for the development of VAW policies and laws: The United Nations Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women Advance Version, the Model of Laws and Policies on Intrafamiliar Violence Against Women of the Pan-American Health Organization and Recommendation No. R(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers of the European Council. The content of the 62 VAW laws was also analyzed. RESULTS: Key documents demonstrate the importance of eliminating any obstacle facing disabled, pregnant, immigrant, ethnic minority or older women when accessing VAW services. Only 12 laws mention one or more of these groups of vulnerable women. Pregnant, disabled and ethnic minority women are the groups most often mentioned. In these laws, references to punitive measures, action plans and specific strategies to guarantee access to VAW resources are the most common interventions. CONCLUSION: Decisive interventions addressing the specific needs of disabled, pregnant, immigrant, ethnic minority and older women are needed in order to achieve a broader equity approach in VAW legislation.

Legislation on violence against women: overview of key components

This study aimed to determine if legislation on violence against women (VAW) worldwide contains key components recommended by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the United Nations (UN) to help strengthen VAW prevention and provide better integrated victim protection, support, and care. A systematic search for VAW legislation using international legal databases and other electronic sources plus data from previous research identified 124 countries/territories with some type of VAW legislation. Full legal texts were found for legislation from 104 countries/territories. Those available in English, Portuguese, and Spanish were downloaded and compiled and the selection criteria applied (use of any of the common terms related to VAW, including intimate partner violence (IPV), and reference to at least two of six sectors (education, health, judicial system, mass media, police, and social services) with regard to VAW interventions (protection, support, and care). A final sample from 80 countries/territories was selected and analyzed for the presence of key components recommended by PAHO and the UN (reference to the term "violence against women" in the title; definitions of different types of VAW; identification of women as beneficiaries; and promotion of (reference to) the participation of multiple sectors in VAW interventions). Few countries/territories specifically identified women as the beneficiaries of their VAW legislation, including those that labeled their legislation "domestic violence" law ( n = 51), of which only two explicitly mentioned women as complainants/survivors. Only 28 countries/territories defined the main forms of VAW (economic, physical, psychological, and sexual) in their VAW legislation. Most highlighted the role of the judicial system, followed by that of social services and the police. Only 28 mentioned the health sector. Despite considerable efforts worldwide to strengthen VAW legislation, most VAW laws do not incorporate the key recommended components. Significant limitations were found in the legislative content, its application, and the extent to which it provided women with integrated protection, support, and care. In developing new VAW legislation, policymakers should consider the vital role of health services.

Looking twice at the gender equity index for public health impact

Background: It has been shown that gender equity has a positive impact on the everyday activities of people (decision making, income allocation, application and observance of norms/rules) which affect their health. Gender equity is also a crucial determinant of health inequalities at national level; thus, monitoring is important for surveillance of women’s and men’s health as well as for future health policy initiatives. The Gender Equity Index (GEI) was designed to show inequity solely towards women. Given that the value under scrutiny is equity, in this paper a modified version of the GEI is proposed, the MGEI, which highlights the inequities affecting both sexes. Methods: Rather than calculating gender gaps by means of a quotient of proportions, gaps in the MGEI are expressed in absolute terms (differences in proportions). The Spearman’s rank coefficient, calculated from country rankings obtained according to both indexes, was used to evaluate the level of concordance between both classifications. To compare the degree of sensitivity and obtain the inequity by the two methods, the variation coefficient of the GEI and MGEI values was calculated. Results: Country rankings according to GEI and MGEI values showed a high correlation (rank coef. = 0.95). The MGEI presented greater dispersion (43.8%) than the GEI (19.27%). Inequity towards men was identified in the education gap (rank coef. = 0.36) when using the MGEI. According to this method, many countries shared the same absolute value for education but with opposite signs, for example Azerbaijan (−0.022) and Belgium (0.022), reflecting inequity towards women and men, respectively. This also occurred in the empowerment gap with the technical and professional job component (Brunei:-0.120 vs. Australia, Canada Iceland and the U.S.A.: 0.120). Conclusion: The MGEI identifies and highlights the different areas of inequities between gender groups. It thus overcomes the shortcomings of the GEI related to the aim for which this latter was created, namely measuring gender equity, and is therefore of great use to policy makers who wish to understand and monitor the results of specific equity policies and to determine the length of time for which these policies should be maintained in order to correct long-standing structural discrimination against women.

Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Spain. A Quantitative Analysis

A growing number of authors have been suggesting the necessary incorporation of children in the analysis of gender violence and, specifically, in the analysis of intimate partner violence against women (IPV). Such incorporation would be relevant not only for reducing children's invisibility and vulnerability, but also for achieving a better understanding of the characteristics and dynamics of IPV. Based on these considerations, we present in this paper the results of a secondary analysis applied to the data obtained in the last Spanish Survey on Violence Against Women. The available information allows us to analyze: 1) the presence of children exposed to IPV, 2) the relationship between this presence and the probability of reporting the violence, and 3) women's perception about the parental role of the aggressors.

Applying the WHO recommendations on health-sector response to violence against women to assess the Spanish health system. A mixed methods approach

This methodological note describes the development and application of a mixed-methods protocol to assess the responsiveness of Spanish health systems to violence against women in Spain, based on the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. Five areas for exploration were identified based on the WHO recommendations: policy environment, protocols, training, accountability/monitoring, and prevention/promotion. Two data collection instruments were developed to assess the situation of 17 Spanish regional health systems (RHS) with respect to these areas: 1) a set of indicators to guide a systematic review of secondary sources, and 2) an interview guide to be used with 26 key informants at the regional and national levels. We found differences between RHSs in the five areas assessed. The progress of RHSs on the WHO recommendations was notable at the level of policies, moderate in terms of health service delivery, and very limited in terms of preventive actions. Using a mixed-methods approach was useful for triangulation and complementarity during instrument design, data collection and interpretation.

Application of the Putting Women First protocol in a study on violence against immigrant women in Spain

In this paper, we describe our experience of using the Putting Women First protocol in the design and implementation of a cross-sectional study on violence against women (VAW) among 1607 immigrant women from Morocco, Ecuador and Romania living in Spain in 2011. The Putting Women First protocol is an ethical guideline for VAW research, which includes recommendations to ensure the safety of the women involved in studies on this subject. The response rate in this study was 59.3%. The prevalence of VAW cases last year was 11.7%, of which 15.6% corresponded to Ecuadorian women, 10.9% to Moroccan women and 8.6% to Romanian women. We consider that the most important goal for future research is the use of VAW scales validated in different languages, which would help to overcome the language barriers encountered in this study.

Violence against young women attending primary care services in Spain: prevalence and health consequences

Background. There are a significant number of studies assessing the negative health consequences of violence against women. However, a limited number of studies analyse the health consequences of violence committed against young women by different types of aggressors. Objectives. The goal of this study is to assess the prevalence of interpersonal violence against young women in Spain and analyse its impact on the physical and mental health of the victims. Methods. A total of 1076 women aged 18–25 years attending Spanish primary care services were selected. We estimated the prevalence of interpersonal violence and compared the health data and demographic characteristics of abused and non-abused young women, multi-logistic regression models were fitted. The Wald test was used to assess whether there were differences in the negative health consequences of intimate partner (IPV) versus non-IPV. Results. As many as 27.6% young women reported a history of abuse, of whom 42.7% had been assaulted by their partner, 41.1% by someone other than their partner and 16.2% both by their partner and another person. The distribution of social and demographic characteristics was similar for IPV and non-IPV victims. Young abused women were three times more likely to suffer psychological distress and have somatic complaints, and they were four times more likely to use medication as compared to non-abused women. Conclusion. Our results suggest that all forms of violence compromise young women’s health seriously. Including patients’ history of abuse in their health record may help make more informed clinical decisions and provide a more integrated care.

Intimate partner violence among women in Spain: the impact of regional-level male unemployment and income inequality

Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) against women is a complex worldwide public health problem. There is scarce research on the independent effect on IPV exerted by structural factors such as labour and economic policies, economic inequalities and gender inequality. Objective: To analyse the association, in Spain, between contextual variables of regional unemployment and income inequality and individual women’s likelihood of IPV, independently of the women’s characteristics. Method: We conducted multilevel logistic regression to analyse cross-sectional data from the 2011 Spanish Macrosurvey of Gender-based Violence which included 7898 adult women. The first level of analyses was the individual women’ characteristics and the second level was the region of residence. Results: Of the survey participants, 12.2% reported lifetime IPV. The region of residence accounted for 3.5% of the total variability in IPV prevalence. We determined a direct association between regional male long-term unemployment and IPV likelihood (P = 0.007) and between the Gini Index for the regional income inequality and IPV likelihood (P < 0.001). Women residing in a region with higher gender-based income discrimination are at a lower likelihood of IPV than those residing in a region with low gender-based income discrimination (odds ratio = 0.64, 95% confidence intervals: 0.55–0.75). Conclusions: Growing regional unemployment rates and income inequalities increase women’s likelihood of IPV. In times of economic downturn, like the current one in Spain, this association may translate into an increase in women’s vulnerability to IPV.

The effect of smoking on visceral fat accumulation in Czech men and women

Many studies indicate that smoking is one of risk factors influencing the accumulation of visceral fat (VFA). The mechanism by which smoking contributes to the accumulation of visceral fat is not yet fully understood, but it is assumed that smoking increases the level of plasma cortisol, causes imbalance between male and female sex hormones in women, and decreases testosterone levels in men (Chiolero et al., 2008). The objection of this study was to evaluate the effect of smoking on the accumulation of VFA in the population of the Czech Republic. The research included 1,412 individuals of both genders divided into categories of smokers vs nonsmokers and physically active vs. physically inactive. VFA was measured by the device InBody 720 and information about physical activity and smoking was collected via a questionnaire. We supposed that smokers would have a higher percentage of VFA than non-smokers. The results showed that smokers had a higher amount of VFA, but the difference was not statistically significant. In contrast, statistically significant differences were found in the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and total % body fat. Physically active individuals had a much more favourable results than physically inactive individuals. Remarkably, the amount of VFA, WHR and % body fat tended to be smaller in smoking men than in non-smoking men, but higher in smoking women than in non-smoking women.

Factores predictores de pérdida de peso y grasa en el tratamiento dietético: sexo, edad, índice de masa corporal y consulta de asistencia

%WL: porcentaje de pérdida de peso; %FL: porcentaje de pérdida de grasa; PNLWF: pacientes que pierden peso o grasa; PLWF: pacientes que pierden peso y grasa. Objetivo: evaluar si el %WL y el %FL en el tratamiento dietético, se vieron afectados por el género, la edad, el IMC y la asistencia a la consulta. Método: 4.700 consultas, 670 pacientes (IMC ≥ 25), en el sur-este de España (2006-12). Se utilizó la dieta equilibrada e hipocalórica. Dos tipos de pacientes: PNLWF y PLWF (91,9%). Resultados: en los PLWF, los hombres y los que asisten en mayor número de ocasiones a la consulta han mostrado una mayor pérdida, frente a las mujeres (%FL: 23,0 vs 14,3%, p = 0,000; %WL: 7,7 vs 6,6%, p = 0,020), y los que asisten con menor frecuencia (%FL: 19,1 vs 7,3%, p = 0,000; %WL: 7,8 vs 2,9%, p = 0,000). El análisis de regresión multinomial (PNLWF/ PLWF) indica que solo el asistir a más de mes y medio a la consulta es un factor que influye en la pérdida, OR 8,3 (IC 95% 4,5-15,1; p = 0,000). Conclusión: la medición de la grasa corporal proporciona una información adicional al peso perdido; la mayoría de los pacientes que asisten más de mes y medio obtienen un elevado %FL; la asistencia es un factor predictor de la pérdida; el %FL indica que el tratamiento dietético juega un papel principal en la resolución de esta patología; se recomienda diseñar esquemas prácticos del proceso de actuación de los nutricionistas en función del IMCi y el variable.

Un modelo ecológico integrado para comprender la violencia contra las mujeres

Referencia del artículo comentado: Heise, Lory L. «Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework». Violence against Women 1998; 4: 262-290.

Social and immigration factors in intimate partner violence among Ecuadorians, Moroccans and Romanians living in Spain

Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) against women occurs in all countries, all cultures and at every level of society; however, some populations may be at greater risk than others. The aim of this study was to explore IPV prevalence among Ecuadorian, Moroccan and Romanian immigrant women living in Spain and its possible association with their personal, family, social support and immigration status characteristics. Methods: Cross-sectional study of 1607 adult immigrant women residing in Barcelona, Madrid and Valencia (2011). Prevalence rates and adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated, with current IPV being the outcome. Different women’s personal (demographic), family, social support and immigration status characteristics were considered as explicative and control variables. All analyses were separated by women’s country of origin. Results: Current IPV prevalence was 15.57% in Ecuadorians, 10.91% in Moroccans and 8.58% in Romanians. Some common IPV factors were found, such as being separated and/or divorced. In Romanians, IPV was also associated with lack of social support [AOR 5.96 (1.39–25.62)] and low religious involvement [AOR 2.17 (1.06–4.43)]. The likelihood of current IPV was lower among women without children or other dependants in this subgroup [AOR 0.29 (0.093–0.92)]. Conclusion: The IPV prevalence rates obtained for Moroccan, Romanian and Ecuadorian women residing in Spain were similar. Whereas the likelihood of IPV appeared to be relatively evenly distributed among Moroccan and Ecuadorian women, it was higher among Romanian women in socially vulnerable situations related to family responsibilities and the lack of support networks. The importance of intervention in the process of separation and divorce was common to all women.

Infancia y violencia de género: cuantificación y percepciones

Cada vez más autores destacan la necesaria incorporación de la infancia en el estudio de la violencia de género y, en concreto, de la violencia contra la mujer por parte del compañero íntimo (VCI). Tal incorporación puede facilitar no sólo una menor invisibilidad y desprotección de niños y niñas, sino también una mejor comprensión de la propia violencia, sus características y dinámicas. Partiendo de estas consideraciones, en este artículo se presentan los resultados de un análisis secundario de los datos obtenidos en la última macroencuesta sobre violencia contra las mujeres en España. La información disponible permite analizar: 1) la presencia de menores expuestos a VCI; 2) la posible relación entre esta presencia y la formulación de denuncias; y 3) la percepción que tienen las mujeres víctimas de VCI en torno al rol parental de los agresores.

Femicidio y feminicidio: un análisis de las aportaciones en clave iberoamericana

La violencia contra las mujeres es una lacra de nuestra sociedad que no se consigue erradicar. En su versión extrema e irreversible terminar con la muerte de la víctima. Desde mediados de la década de los años 70, del siglo pasado y de la mano de Diane Russell se visibilizaron los femicidios como el asesinato de una mujer por el hecho de ser mujer. Posteriormente, en los años 90, Marcela Lagarde crea el neologismo feminicidio al traducir la obra de Rusell al español. Desde entonces ambos términos han creado un espacio de conocimiento, de investigación y de acción política. El propósito de este trabajo es averiguar cómo se ha abordado el femicidio / feminicidio en las ciencias sociales en el contexto iberoamericano. Para ello se ha optado por una revisión de la literatura especializada en español y en portugués, analizando el tratamiento que reciben así como el alcance de los términos.