A paralysis in public health policy: water fluoridation in Queensland (1996-2006)

By focusing on developments between 1996 and 2006, this paper explains the reasons for one of Australia’s public health inconsistencies, the comparatively low adoption of adjusted water fluoridation in Queensland. As such, this work involved literature review and traditional historical method. In Queensland, parliamentary support for water fluoridation is conditional on community approval. Political ambivalence and the constraints of the “Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Act (1963)” Qld have hindered the advocacy of water fluoridation. The political circumstance surrounding the “Lord Mayor’s Taskforce on Fluoridation Report” (1997) influenced its findings and confirms that Australia’s biggest local authority, the Brisbane City Council, failed to authoritatively analyse water fluoridation. In 2004, a private member’s bill to mandate fluoridation failed in a spectacular fashion. In 2005, an official systems review of Queensland Health recommended public debate about water fluoridation. Our principal conclusion is that without mandatory legislation, widespread implementationof water fluoridation in Queensland is most unlikely.

Biodegradation of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin LR in natural water and biologically active slow sand filters

A bacterium (MJ-PV) previously demonstrated to degrade the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin LR, was investigated for bioremediation applications in natural water microcosms and biologically active slow sand filters. Enhanced degradation of microcystin LR was observed with inoculated (1 x 10(6) cell/mL) treatments of river water dosed with microcystin LR (> 80% degradation within 2 days) compared to uninoculated controls. Inoculation of MJ-PV at lower concentrations (1 x 10(2)-1 x 10(5)cells/mL) also demonstrated enhanced microcystin LR degradation over control treatments. Polymerase chain reactions (PCR) specifically targeting amplification of 16S rDNA of MJ-PV and the gene responsible for initial degradation of microcystin LR (mlrA) were successfully applied to monitor the presence of the bacterium in experimental trials. No amplified products indicative of an endemic MJ-PV population were observed in uninoculated treatments indicating other bacterial strains were active in degradation of microcystin LR, Pilot scale biologically active slow sand filters demonstrated degradation of microcystin LR irrespective of MJ-PV bacterial inoculation. PCR analysis detected the MJ-PV population at all locations within the sand filters where microcystin degradation was measured. Despite not observing enhanced degradation of microcystin LR in inoculated columns compared to uninoculated column, these studies demonstrate the effectiveness of a low-technology water treatment system like biologically active slow sand filters for removal of microcystins from reticulated water supplies. Crown Copyright (c) 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Modern environmental improvement pathways for the coal power generation industry in Australia

In this work we assess the pathways for environmental improvement by the coal utilization industry for power generation in Australia. In terms of resources, our findings show that coal is a long term resource of concern as coal reserves are likely to last for the next 500 years or more. However, our analysis indicates that evaporation losses of water in power generation will approach 1000 Gl (gigalitres) per year, equivalent to a consumption of half of the Australian residential population. As Australia is the second driest continent on earth, water consumption by power generators is a resource of immediate concern with regards to sustainability. We also show that coal will continue to play a major role in energy generation in Australia and, hence, there is a need to employ new technologies that can minimize environmental impacts. The major technologies to reduce impacts to air, water and soils are addressed. Of major interest, there is a major potential for developing sequestration processes in Australia, in particular by enhanced coal bed methane (ECBM) recovery at the Bowen Basin, South Sydney Basin and Gunnedah Basin. Having said that, CO2 capture technologies require further development to support any sequestration processes in order to comply with the Kyoto Protocol. Current power generation cycles are thermodynamic limited, with 35-40% efficiencies. To move to a high efficiency cycle, it is required to change technologies of which integrated gasification combined cycle plus fuel cell is the most promising, with efficiencies expected to reach 60-65%. However, risks of moving towards an unproven technology means that power generators are likely to continue to use pulverized fuel technologies, aiming at incremental efficiency improvements (business as usual). As a big picture pathway, power generators are likely to play an increasing role in regional development; in particular EcoParks and reclaiming saline water for treatment as pressures to access fresh water supplies will significantly increase.

Genotoxicity investigation of chlorinated degradation products of a cyanobacterial toxin, cylindrospermopsin

Cylindrospermopsin (CYN), a potent cyanobacterial hepatotoxin produced by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and other cyanobacteria, is regularly found in water supplies in many parts of the world and has been associated with the intoxication of humans and livestock.Water treatment via chlorination can degrade the toxin effectively but result in the production of several byproducts. In this study, male and female Balb/c mice were injected via the intraperitoneal (IP) route with a single dose of 10 mg/kg 5-chlorouracil and 10 mg/kg 5-chloro-6-hydroxymethyluracil; these two compounds are the predicted chlorinated degradation products of CYN.DNA was isolated from the mouse livers and examined for strand breakage by alkaline gel electrophoresis (pH 12). The median molecular length (MML) of the DNA distributed in the gel was determined by estimating the midpoint of the DNA size distribution by densitometry. The toxicity of 5-chlorouracil (as measured by DNA strand breakage) was significantly influenced by time from dosing. There was no significant difference in MML between mice dosed with 5-chloro-6-hydroxymethyluracil and the controls. In another experiment, mice were dosed with 0, 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 mg/kg body weight 5-chlorouracil and 0, 0.1, 1, 10 and 20 mg/kg 5-chloro-6-hydroxymethyluracil via IP injection. The heart, liver, kidney, lung and spleen were removed, fixed and examined under electron microscopy. Liver was the main target organ. The EM results revealed marked distortion on the nuclear membrane of liver cells in mice dosed with 1.0 mg/kg 5-chlorouracil or 10 mg/kg 5-chloro-6-hydroxymethyluracil, or higher.

Water rights for variable supplies

The relative merits of different systems of property rights to allocate water among different extractive uses are evaluated for the case where variability of supply is important. Three systems of property rights are considered. In the first, variable supply is dealt with through the use of water entitlements defined as shares of the total quantity available. In the second, there are two types of water entitlements, one for water with a high security of supply and the other a lower security right for the residual supply. The third is a system of entitlements specified as state-contingent claims. With zero transaction costs, all systems are efficient. In the realistic situation where transaction costs matter, the system based on state-contingent claims is globally optimal, and the system with high-security and lower security entitlements is preferable to the system with share entitlements.

The changing public-private infrastructure mix: Economy-wide implications

This article provides an economy-wide perspective on the changing role of the public sector in developing economic and social infrastructure in Australia. It analyses the scale and macroeconomic significance of the key economic and social infrastructure sectors - communication services, electricity, gas and water supply, transport, education, health and community services, government administration and defence. It then canvasses the major policy issues that have arisen in the progression from public to private infrastructure provision and considers why concerns about the trend fall in traditional public works spending may be misplaced in light of recent economic and institutional changes.

The agricultural water supply challenge - the need for improved water use efficiency

This paper examines the challenges of water supply in agriculture, with particular emphasis on requirements of field crops, including maize. It places the issue of water supply to agriculture in the context of increasing demands for water from alternatives users, declining quality water, pressure of increasing population, all of which are placing stresses on water availability at local, regional and national levels. The paper also examines existing freshwater resources and the potential impact of climate change on water supply and distribution and consequential impact on water stress incidence in various parts of the globe. It examines competition for water in both industrialized and developing countries, with particular emphasis on the impacts on agriculture and food supplies. The challenge of water use efficiency (WUE) in agriculture is explored with discussion of agronomic, economic and physiological WUE concepts, with specific reference to maize.