Distribution of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (L.) (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae), in western North America

The standard model for the migration of the monarch butterfly in western North America has hitherto been movement in the autumn to overwintering sites in coastal California, followed by a return inland by most individuals in the spring. This model is based largely on observational and limited tagging and recovery data. In this paper we test the model by plotting many years of museum and collection records on a monthly basis on a map of the region. Our plots suggest a movement of Oregon, Washington and other north-western populations of summer butterflies to California in the autumn, but movement of more north-easterly populations (e.g. from Idaho and Montana) along two pathways through Nevada, Utah and Arizona to Mexico. The more westerly of these two pathways may follow the Colorado River south as indicated by museum records and seasonal temperature data. The eastern pathway may enter northern Utah along the western scarp of the Wasatch Mountains and run south through Utah and Arizona. Further analysis of distributions suggests that monarch butterflies in the American West occur primarily along rivers, and there are observations indicating that autumn migrants often follow riparian corridors. More data are needed to test our new model; we suggest the nature of the data required. (c) 2005 The Linnean Society of London.

Monarchs across the Pacific: the Columbus hypothesis revisited

The 'Columbus hypothesis' suggests that the annual north-south return migration of Danaus plexippus in North America is a very recently evolved behaviour, less than 200 years old. This hypothesis rests, in part, on an analysis of the 19th century spread of the monarch across the Pacific that assumes a continuous east to west movement and is based predominantly on one publication. We review all the contemporary literature and present new analysis of the data. The movement of the monarch across the Pacific in the second half of the 19th century is best explained by a model which involves no more than three spot introductions, directly or indirectly aided by human movement, followed by natural spread of the monarch across island groups. Contemporary records refer to 'boom' and 'bust' population cycles on newly settled islands, which may have led to high rates of monarch movement. We see no evidence in the records to suggest an east to west sweep by monarch populations as suggested by the Columbus hypothesis. (C) 2004 The Linnean Society of London.

Monarchs in Australia: On the winds of a storm?

The monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus, is one of Australia's best-known exotic butterflies, being first recorded here in the spring/summer of 1870/1871. However, the source of the original population is unknown. Using historical records we suggest that the most likely source of the founder population was from Vanuatu and/or New Caledonia. Many almost simultaneous 'first records' for the butterfly in Australia suggest that a large, well-distributed population was present when first noticed. While such a population may have developed from a limited number of individuals flying across the Coral Sea, the well documented, very dramatic appearance of large monarch populations in Australia does not appear to fit this model. Rather, we hypothesise that large numbers of monarchs were carried to Australia on cyclonic winds: no fewer that 3 cyclones hit the Queensland coast in early 1870. If one or more of these cyclones tracked from the Vanuatu/New Caledonia chain, then they may have transported monarchs. Once established on the central/northern Queensland coast, natural migration would account for the appearance of butterflies further south.

Animal migration: is there a common migratory syndrome?

Ornithologists, and especially northern hemisphere ornithologists, have traditionally thought of migration as an annual return movement of populations between regular breeding and non-breeding grounds. Problems arise because selection does not ordinarily act on populations and because organisms of many taxa (including birds) are clearly migrants, but fail to undertake movements of the kind described. There are also extensive return movements that are not migratory. I propose that it is more useful to think of migration as a syndrome of behavioral and other traits that function together within individuals, and that such a syndrome provides a common ground across taxa from aphids to albatrosses. Large-scale return movements of populations are one outcome of the syndrome. Similar behavioral and physiological traits serve both to define migration and to provide a test for it. I use two insect (Hemipteran) examples to illustrate migratory syndromes and to demonstrate that, in many migrants, behavior and physiology correlate with life history and morphological traits to form syndromes at two levels. I then compare the two Hemipterans with migration in birds, butterflies, and fish to assess the question of whether there are migratory syndromes in common between these diverse migrants. Syndromes are more similar at the level of behavior than when morphology and life history traits are included. Recognizing syndromes leads to important evolutionary questions concerning migration strategies, trade-offs, the maintenance of genetic variance and the responses of migratory syndromes to both similar and different selective regimes.