A cognitive model of binge drinking: The influence of alcohol expectancies and drinking refusal self-efficacy

While binge drinking-episodic or irregular consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol-is recognised as a serious problem affecting our youth, to date there has been a lack of psychological theory and thus theoretically driven research into this problem. The current paper develops a cognitive model using the key constructs of alcohol expectancies (AEs) and drinking refusal self-efficacy (DRSE) to explain the acquisition and maintenance of binge drinking. It is suggested that the four combinations of the AE and DRSE can explain the four drinking styles. These are normal/social drinkers, binge drinkers, regular heavy drinkers, and problem drinkers or alcoholics. Since AE and DRSE are cognitive constructs and therefore modifiable, the cognitive model can thus facilitate the design of intervention and-prevention strategies for binge drinking. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Being stoned: A review of self-reported cannabis effects

Although there has been considerable research into the adverse effects of cannabis, less attention has been directed toward subjective effects that may be associated with ongoing cannabis use. Examination of self-reported cannabis effects is an important issue in understanding the widespread use of cannabis. While reviews have identified euphoria as a primary factor in maintaining cannabis use, relaxation is the effect reported most commonly in naturalistic studies of cannabis users, irrespective of the method used. Self-reported effects in 12 naturalistic and 18 laboratory studies were compared. Regardless of methodology there was considerable variation in the effects experienced. Variation has been reported in terms of opposite effects being experienced by different individuals, variation of effects by individuals within a single occasion and between occasions of use. Factors that might explain this variation are outlined. Limitations of the available literature and suggested directions for future research are discussed.

Psychometric properties of the drinking expectancy questionnaire: A review of the factor structure and a proposed new scoring method

Objective: Expectancies about the outcomes of alcohol consumption are widely accepted as important determinants of drinking. This construct is increasingly recognized as a significant element of psychological interventions for alcohol-related problems. Much effort has been invested in producing reliable and valid instruments to measure this construct for research and clinical purposes, but very few have had their factor structure subjected to adequate validation. Among them, the Drinking Expectancies Questionnaire (DEQ) was developed to address some theoretical and design issues with earlier expectancy scales. Exploratory factor analyses, in addition to validity and reliability analyses, were performed when the original questionnaire was developed. The object of this study was to undertake a confirmatory analysis of the factor structure of the DEQ. Method: Confirmatory factor analysis through LISREL 8 was performed using a randomly split sample of 679 drinkers. Results: Results suggested that a new 5-factor model, which differs slightly from the original 6-factor version, was a more robust measure of expectancies. A new method of scoring the DEQ consistent with this factor structure is presented. Conclusions: The present study shows more robust psychometric properties of the DEQ using the new factor structure.

Optimism health-related hardiness and well-being among older Australian women

This article examines whether optimism and health-related hardiness contribute to health and well-being among older women. Positive psychological characteristics, including optimism and health-related hardiness, are correlated with good self-rated health, but these variables are all affected by socioeconomic status, social support, physical illness and access to services. Using data from 9501 Australian women aged 73 to 78, we show that optimism and health-related hardiness explain a significant proportion of variance in all subscales of the SF-36, and in stress, even after these confounders are taken into account. The data, although cross-sectional, suggest that positive personal characteristics may contribute to well-being.

The gambling related cognitions scale (GRCS): development, confirmatory factor validation and psychometric properties

Aims The aims of this study are to develop and validate a measure to screen for a range of gambling-related cognitions (GRC) in gamblers. Design and participants A total of 968 volunteers were recruited from a community-based population. They were divided randomly into two groups. Principal axis factoring with varimax rotation was performed on group one and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used on group two to confirm the best-fitted solution. Measurements The Gambling Related Cognition Scale (GRCS) was developed for this study and the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the Motivation Towards Gambling Scale (MTGS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-2 1) were used for validation. Findings Exploratory factor analysis performed using half the sample indicated five factors, which included interpretative control/bias (GRCS-IB), illusion of control (GRCS-IC), predictive control (GRCS-PC), gambling-related expectancies (GRCS-GE) and a perceived inability to stop gambling (GRCS-IS). These accounted for 70% of the total variance. Using the other half of the sample, CFA confirmed that the five-factor solution fitted the data most effectively. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the factors ranged from 0.77 to 0.91, and 0.93 for the overall scale. Conclusions This paper demonstrated that the 23-item GRCS has good psychometric properties and thus is a useful instrument for identifying GRC among non-clinical gamblers. It provides the first step towards devising/adapting similar tools for problem gamblers as well as developing more specialized instruments to assess particular domains of GRC.

Familial influence on offspring gambling: a cognitive mechanism for transmission of gambling behavior in families

Background. The problem-gambling literature has identified a range of individual, cognitive, behavioral and emotional factors as playing important roles in the development, maintenance and treatment of problem gambling. However, familial factors have often been neglected. The current study aims to investigate the possible influence of parental factors on offspring gambling behavior. Method. A total of 189 families (546 individuals) completed several questionnaires including the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and the Gambling Related Cognition Scale (GRCS). The relationships were examined using Pearson product-moment correlations and structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses. Results. Results showed that generally parents' (especially fathers') gambling cognitions and gambling behaviors positively correlated with offspring gambling behaviors and cognitions. However, SEM analyses showed that although parental gambling behavior was directly related to offspring gambling behavior, parental cognitions were not related to offspring gambling behavior directly but indirectly via offspring cognitions. Conclusion. The findings show that the influence of parental gambling cognition on offspring gambling behavior is indirect and via offspring cognitions. The results suggest a possible cognitive mechanism of transmission of gambling behavior in the family from one generation to the next.

Desire to drink in low- and high-risk social drinkers: An experimental analogue of impaired control

This study used a novel cue exposure paradigm to investigate the differences between high- and low-risk drinkers in their desire to drink during a drinking session. Fifty-three self-selected participants were assigned to high- or low-risk drinking groups based on their self-reported consumption of alcohol, then compared on their desire to drink over a 90 min paced drinking session. High-risk drinkers showed increasing desire over the session, while low-risk drinkers' desire began to decrease after only a short drinking period. The perceived and actual effects of the alcohol did not appear to be able to account for the difference. Results are discussed with reference to issues of impaired control. Suggestions for future research directions are also offered.

Design options for sample-based mortality surveillance

Background Reliable information on causes of death is a fundamental component of health development strategies, yet globally only about one-third of countries have access to such information. For countries currently without adequate mortality reporting systems there are useful models other than resource-intensive population-wide medical certification. Sample-based mortality surveillance is one such approach. This paper provides methods for addressing appropriate sample size considerations in relation to mortality surveillance, with particular reference to situations in which prior information on mortality is lacking. Methods The feasibility of model-based approaches for predicting the expected mortality structure and cause composition is demonstrated for populations in which only limited empirical data is available. An algorithm approach is then provided to derive the minimum person-years of observation needed to generate robust estimates for the rarest cause of interest in three hypothetical populations, each representing different levels of health development. Results Modelled life expectancies at birth and cause of death structures were within expected ranges based on published estimates for countries at comparable levels of health development. Total person-years of observation required in each population could be more than halved by limiting the set of age, sex, and cause groups regarded as 'of interest'. Discussion The methods proposed are consistent with the philosophy of establishing priorities across broad clusters of causes for which the public health response implications are similar. The examples provided illustrate the options available when considering the design of mortality surveillance for population health monitoring purposes.

Alcohol-related associative strength and drinking behaviours: concurrent and prospective relationships

The first part of this research assessed the longitudinal relationships between alcohol- related associative strength and alcohol use measured at two time- points, 6 months apart. Cross-lagged results support the utility of alcohol- related associative strength to predict drinking behaviours prospectively and vice versa. These results remained after competing explanations of previous use, autocorrelations between memory measures, sensation seeking and background variables of age and gender were accounted for. Findings offer further evidence for an implicit cognitions approach to drinking processes. In the second part of our study, cross-sectional analysis investigated potential mediating mechanisms in the relation of associative strength to quantity and frequency dimensions of drinking. Mediational models provide preliminary evidence that implicit memory processes may have differential effects on quantity and frequency dimensions of drinking behaviours. The results point to the possibility that increasing awareness of implicit alcohol-related associations may have utility in interventions for young adults.

Binge drinking in university students: A test of the cognitive model

The aim of this study was to test the cognitive model [Addict. Behav. 29 (2004) 159] of binge drinking in university students. In Study 1, 202 participants completed the Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire (DEQ), the Drinking Refusal Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (DRSEQ), and the Khavari Alcohol Test (KAT). The results showed that both alcohol expectancies (AEs) and drinking refusal self-efficacy (DRSE) are needed to discriminate between binge, social, and heavy drinkers. In general, binge drinkers tend to have higher AEs than social drinkers, and have slightly lower DRSE. However, young social and binge drinkers can only be discriminated on the basis of their AEs. One hundred and fourteen students were recruited for the second study, to predict which individuals would engage in binge drinking during a 4-week self-monitoring period. Over 80% of predicted binge drinkers binged at least once during the monitoring period. These two studies confirmed the cognitive model of binge drinking, and thus, hold implications for the prevention of binge drinking among adolescents and young adults. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The complexity of drinking: Interactions between the cognitive and behavioural determinants of alcohol consumption

This study expanded the earlier work conducted by this laboratory ( Hasking, P.A. and Oei, T.P.S. (2002a) . The differential role of alcohol expectancies, drinking refusal self-efficacy and coping resources in predicting alcohol consumption in community and clinical samples. Addiction Research and Theory , 10 , 465-494), by examining the independent and interactive effects of avoidant coping strategies, positive and negative expectancies and self-efficacy, in predicting volume and frequency of alcohol consumption in a sample of community drinkers. Differential relationships were found between the variables when predicting the two consumption measures. Specifically, while self-efficacy, seeking social support for emotional reasons and using drugs or alcohol to cope were independently related to both volume and frequency of drinking, complex interactions with positive and negative alcohol expectancies were also found. These interactions are discussed in terms of the cognitive and behavioural mechanisms thought to underlie drinking behaviour.