Elite athletes: Why does the 'fire' burn so brightly?

Background and Purpose: What drives some athletes to achieve at the highest level whilst other athletes fail to achieve their physical potential? Why does the ‘fire’ burn so brightly for some elite athletes and not for others? A good understanding of an athlete’s motivation is critical to a coach designing an appropriate motivational climate to realize an athlete’s physical talent. This paper examines the motivational processes of elite athletes within the framework of three major social-cognitive theories of motivation. Method: Participants were five male and five female elite track and field athletes from Australia who had finished in the top ten at either the Olympic Games and/or the World Championships in the last six years. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews. Results and Discussion: Inductive analyses revealed several major themes associated with the motivational processes of elite athletes: (a) they were highly driven by personal goals and achievement, (b) they had strong self-belief, and (c) track and field was central to their lives. The findings are discussed in light of recent social-cognitive theories of motivation, namely, self-determination theory, the hierarchical model of motivation, and achievement goal theory. Self-determined forms of motivation characterised the elite athletes in this study and, consistent with social-cognitive theories of motivation, it is suggested that goal accomplishment enhances perceptions of competence and consequently promotes self-determined forms of motivation.

Children’s respiratory health and daily particulate levels in ten non-urban communities

We conducted a study to assess the association between the acute respiratory health of children and the levels of particulates in communities near and away from active opencast coal mines. The study enrolled children aged 1–11 years from the general population of five socioeconomically matched pairs of nonurban communities in northern England. Diaries of respiratory events were collected for 1405 children, and information was collected on the consultations of 2442 children with family/general practitioners over the 6-week study periods during 1996–1997, with concurrent monitoring of particulate levels. The associations found between daily PM10 levels and respiratory symptoms were frequently small and positive and sometimes varied between communities. The magnitude of these associations were in line with those from previous studies, even though daily particulate levels were low, and the children were drawn from the general population, rather than from the population with respiratory problems. The associations among asthma reliever use, consultations with general practitioners, and daily particulate levels were of a similar strength but estimated less precisely. The strength of association between all respiratory health measures and particulate levels was similar in communities near and away from opencast coal mining sites.

Reconceptualising social sustainability in urban development

Although the social dimension is often cited as the third leg of triple bottom line sustainability, there is at present general agreement on the difficulty of saying just what social sustainability is and how it can be related to enivironmental sustainability. This paper proposes that a sociotechnical understanding of the relationship beween human behaviour and technical developments provides a way of making the social dimension accessible to engineers, designers and developers. We draw on early work in master planned urban developments to show how a sociotechnical model, married to a life cycle assessment approach can help us understand and design for effective and efficient implementation of sustainability systems

Heart rate, blood lactate and kinematic data of elite colts (under-19) rugby union players during competition

Physiological and kinematic data were collected from elite under-19 rugby union players to provide a greater understanding of the physical demands of rugby union. Heart rate, blood lactate and time-motion analysis data were collected from 24 players (mean +/- s((x) over bar): body mass 88.7 +/- 9.9 kg, height 185 +/- 7 cm, age 18.4 +/- 0.5 years) during six competitive premiership fixtures. Six players were chosen at random from each of four groups: props and locks, back row forwards, inside backs, outside backs. Heart rate records were classified based on percent time spent in four zones (>95%, 85-95%, 75-84%, <75% HRmax). Blood lactate concentration was measured periodically throughout each match, with movements being classified as standing, walking, jogging, cruising, sprinting, utility, rucking/mauling and scrummaging. The heart rate data indicated that props and locks (58.4%) and back row forwards (56.2%) spent significantly more time in high exertion (85-95% HRmax) than inside backs (40.5%) and outside backs (33.9%) (P < 0.001). Inside backs (36.5%) and outside backs (38.5%) spent significantly more time in moderate exertion (75-84% HRmax) than props and locks (22.6%) and back row forwards (19.8%) (P < 0.05). Outside backs (20.1%) spent significantly more time in low exertion (< 75% HRmax) than props and locks (5.8%) and back row forwards (5.6%) (P < 0.05). Mean blood lactate concentration did not differ significantly between groups (range: 4.67 mmol.l(-1) for outside backs to 7.22 mmol.l(-1) for back row forwards; P < 0.05). The motion analysis data indicated that outside backs (5750 m) covered a significantly greater total distance than either props and locks or back row forwards (4400 and 4080 m, respectively; P < 0.05). Inside backs and outside backs covered significantly greater distances walking (1740 and 1780 m, respectively; P < 0.001), in utility movements (417 and 475 m, respectively; P < 0.001) and sprinting (208 and 340 m, respectively; P < 0.001) than either props and locks or back row forwards (walking: 1000 and 991 m; utility movements: 106 and 154 m; sprinting: 72 and 94 m, respectively). Outside backs covered a significantly greater distance sprinting than inside backs (208 and 340 m, respectively; P < 0.001). Forwards maintained a higher level of exertion than backs, due to more constant motion and a large involvement in static high-intensity activities. A mean blood lactate concentration of 4.8-7.2 mmol.l(-1) indicated a need for 'lactate tolerance' training to improve hydrogen ion buffering and facilitate removal following high-intensity efforts. Furthermore, the large distances (4.2-5.6 km) covered during, and intermittent nature of, match-play indicated a need for sound aerobic conditioning in all groups (particularly backs) to minimize fatigue and facilitate recovery between high-intensity efforts.

Suicide in urban New South Wales, Australia 1985-1994: Socio-economic and migrant interactions

Variation of suicide with socio-economic status (SES) in urban NSW (Australia) during 1985-1994, by sex and country or region of birth, was examined using Poisson regression analysis of vital statistics and population data (age greater than or similar to 15 yr). Quintiles of SES were defined by municipality of residence and comparisons of suicide by SES were adjusted for age and country (or region) of birth (COB), and examined by COB. Risk of suicide in females was 28% that of males for all adults and 21% for youth (age 15-24 yr). Suicide risk was lower in males from southern Europe, Middle East and Asia, and higher in northern and eastern European males, compared to the Australian-born. Risks for suicide increased significantly with decreasing SES in males, but not in females. The relationship of male suicide and SES was stronger when controlled for COB. For males, the relative risk of suicide, adjusted for age and COB, was 66% higher in the lowest SES quintile compared to the highest quintile, and 39% higher for youth (age 15-24 yr). For male suicide, the population attributable fraction for SES (less than the highest quintile) was 27%. Analysis of SES differentials in male suicide according to COB indicated a significant inverse suicide gradient in relation to SES for the Australian-born and those burn in New Zealand and the United Kingdom or fire. but not in non-English speaking COB groups, except for Asia. For Australian-born males, suicide risk was 71% higher in the lowest SES group (compared to the highest), adjusted for age. These findings indicate that SES plays an important role in male suicide rates among the Australian-born and migrants from English-speaking countries and Asia, and among youth; but not in female suicide, nor suicide in most non-English speaking migrant groups. Reduction in SES differentials through economic and social policies may reduce male suicide in lower SES groups and should be seen to be at least as important as individual level interventions. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Urban and rural suicide differentials in migrants and the Australian-born, New South Wales, Australia 1985-1994

We estimated risk of suicide in adults in New South Wales (NSW) by sex, country of birth and rural/urban residence, after adjusting for age; we also examined youth suicide (age 15-24 years). The study population was the entire population of NSW, Australia, aged greater than or equal to 15 years during the period 1985-1994. Poisson regression was used to examine the relationship between predictor variables and the risk of suicide, with the focus on migrant status and area of residence. A significantly higher risk of suicide was found in male migrants from Northern Europe and Eastern Europe/former USSR, compared to Australian-born males; a significantly lower suicide risk occurred in males from Southern Europe, the Middle East and Asia. In female migrants, those from UK/Eire, Northern Europe, Eastern Europe/former USSR and New Zealand exhibited a significantly higher risk of suicide compared to Australian-born females. A significantly lower risk of suicide occurred in females from the Middle East. Male migrants overall were at significantly lower risk of suicide than the Australian-born, while female migrants overall had a significantly higher risk of suicide than Australian-born females. Among migrant males overall, the rural-urban suicide risk differential was significantly higher for those living in non-metropolitan areas (RR = 1.9; 95% CI: 1.7-2.1). Suicide risk was significantly higher in non-metropolitan male immigrants from the UK/Eire (RR = 1.4; 95% CI: 1.1-1.7), Southern Europe (RR = 1.7; 95% CI: 1.2-2.4), Northern/Western Europe (1.5; 95% CI: 1.2-1.9), the Middle East (RR = 3.8; 95% CI: 1.9-7.8), New :Zealand (RR = 1.4; 95% CI: 1.0-1.8) and 'other' (RR = 2.6; 95% CI: 1.9-3.5), when compared to their urban counterparts. There was no statistically significant difference in suicide risk between rural and urban Australian-born males. For female suicide, significantly lower risk was found in female immigrants living in non-metropolitan areas who were from Northern/Western Europe (RR = 0.7; 95% CI: 0.4-0.96), as well as the Australian-born (RR = 0.7; 95% CI: 0.6-0.8), when compared to their urban counterparts. The non-metropolitan/metropolitan relative risk for suicide in female migrants overall was not significantly different from one. Among male youth there was a significantly higher suicide risk in non-metropolitan areas, with a relative risk estimate of 1.4 for Australian-born youth (95% CI: 1.2-1.5) and 1.7 for migrant youth (95% CI: 1.2-2.4), when compared with metropolitan counterparts. We conclude that suicide among migrant males living in non-metropolitan areas accounts for most of the excess of male suicide in rural NSW, and the significantly lower risk of suicide for non-metropolitan Australian-born women does not apply to migrant women. (C) 1999 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Regional and total body bone mineral density in elite collegiate male swimmers

Back,ground To examine the role of long-term swimming exercise on regional and total body bone mineral density (BMD) in men. Methods. Experimental design: Cross-sectional. Setting: Musculoskeletal research laboratory at a medical center, Participants:We compared elite collegiate swimmers (n=11) to age-, weight-, and height-matched non-athletic controls (n=11), Measures: BMD (g/cm(2)) of the lumbar spine L2-4, proximal femur (femoral neck, trochanter, Ward's triangle), total body and various subregions of the total body, as well as regional and total body fat and bone mineral-free lean mass (LM) was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, Hologic QDR 1000/W). Results. Swimmers, who commenced training at 10.7+/-3.7 yrs (mean+/-SD) and trained for 24.7+/-4.2 hrs per week, had a greater amount of LM (p<0.05), lower fat mass (p<0.001) and percent body fat (9.5 vs 16.2 %, p<0.001) than controls. There was no significant difference between groups for regional or total body BRID, In stepwise multiple regression analysis, body weight was a consistent independent predictor of regional and total body BMD, Conclusions. These results suggest that long-term swimming is not an osteogenic mode of training in college-aged males. This supports our previous findings in young female swimmers who displayed no bone mass benefits despite long-standing athletic training.

The demise of a planned randomised controlled trial in an urban Aboriginal medical service

To fill a gap in knowledge about the effectiveness of brief intervention for hazardous alcohol use among Indigenous Australians, we attempted to implement a randomised controlled trial in an urban Aboriginal Medical Service (AMS) as a joint AMS-university partnership. Because of low numbers of potential participants being screened, the RCT was abandoned in favour of a two-part demonstration project. Only 16 clients were recruited for follow-up in six-months, and the trial was terminated. Clinic, patient, Aboriginal health worker, and GP factors, interacting with study design factors, all contributed to our inability to implement the trial as designed. The key points to emerge from the study are that alcohol misuse is a difficult issue to manage in an Indigenous primary health care setting; RCTs involving inevitably complex study protocols may not be acceptable or sufficiently adaptable to make them viable in busy, Indigenous primary health care settings; and gold-standard RCT-derived evidence for the effectiveness of many public health interventions in Indigenous primary health care settings may never be available, and decisions about appropriate interventions will often have to be based on qualitative assessment of appropriateness and evidence from other populations and other settings.