Effects of concentrated viral communities on photosynthesis and community composition of co-occurring benthic microalgae and phytoplankton

Marine viruses have been shown to affect phytoplankton productivity; however, there are no reports on the effect of viruses on benthic microalgae (microphytobenthos). Hence, this study investigated the effects of elevated concentrations of virus-like particles on the photosynthetic physiology and community composition of benthic microalgae and phytoplankton. Virus populations were collected near the sediment surface and concentrated by tangential flow ultrafiltration, and the concentrate was added to benthic and water column samples that were obtained along a eutrophication gradient in the Brisbane River/Moreton Bay estuary, Australia. Photosynthetic and community responses of benthic microalgae, phytoplankton and bacteria were monitored over 7 d in aquaria and in situ. Benthic microalgal communities responded to viral enrichment in both eutrophic and oligotrophic sediments. In eutrophic sediments, Euglenophytes (Euglena sp.) and bacteria decreased in abundance by 20 to 60 and 26 to 66%, respectively, from seawater controls. In oligotrophic sediments, bacteria decreased in abundance by 30 to 42% from seawater controls but the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp. increased in abundance by 270 to 3600% from seawater controls, The increased abundance of Gymnodinium sp. may be related to increased availability of dissolved organic matter released from lysed bacteria. Increased (140 to 190% from seawater controls) initial chlorophyll a fluorescence measured with a pulse-amplitude modulated fluorometer was observed in eutrophic benthic microalgal incubations following virus enrichment, consistent with photosystem II damage. Virus enrichment in oligotrophic water significantly stimulated carbon fixation rates, perhaps due to increased nutrient availability by bacterial lysis. The interpretation of data from virus amendment experiments is difficult due to potential interaction with unidentified bioactive compounds within seawater concentrates. However, these results show that viruses are capable of influencing microbial dynamics in sediments.

Spatial distribution of benthic microalgae on coral reefs determined by remote sensing

Understanding the ecological role of benthic microalgae, a highly productive component of coral reef ecosystems, requires information on their spatial distribution. The spatial extent of benthic microalgae on Heron Reef (southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia) was mapped using data from the Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper sensor. integrated with field measurements of sediment chlorophyll concentration and reflectance. Field-measured sediment chlorophyll concentrations. 2 ranging from 23-1.153 mg chl a m(2), were classified into low, medium, and high concentration classes (1-170, 171-290, and > 291 mg chl a m(-2)) using a K-means clustering algorithm. The mapping process assumed that areas in the Thematic Mapper image exhibiting similar reflectance levels in red and blue bands would correspond to areas of similar chlorophyll a levels. Regions of homogenous reflectance values corresponding to low, medium, and high chlorophyll levels were identified over the reef sediment zone by applying a standard image classification algorithm to the Thematic Mapper image. The resulting distribution map revealed large-scale ( > 1 km 2) patterns in chlorophyll a levels throughout the sediment zone of Heron Reef. Reef-wide estimates of chlorophyll a distribution indicate that benthic Microalgae may constitute up to 20% of the total benthic chlorophyll a at Heron Reef. and thus contribute significantly to total primary productivity on the reef.

Benthic microalgae in coral reef sediments of the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The abundance and productivity of benthic microalgae in coral reef sediments are poorly known compared with other, more conspicuous (e.g. coral zooxanthellae, macroalgae) primary producers of coral reef habitats. A survey of the distribution, biomass, and productivity of benthic microalgae on a platform reef flat and in a cross-shelf transect in the southern Great Barrier Reef indicated that benthic microalgae are ubiquitous, abundant (up to 995.0 mg chlorophyll (chl) a m(-2)), and productive (up to 110 mg O-2 m(-2) h(-1)) components of the reef ecosystem. Concentrations of benthic microalgae, expressed as chlorophyll a per surface area, were approximately 100-fold greater than the integrated water column concentrations of microalgae throughout the region. Benthic microalgal biomass was greater on the shallow water platform reef than in the deeper waters of the cross-shelf transect. In both areas the benthic microalgal communities had a similar composition, dominated by pennate diatoms, dinoflagellates, and cyanobacteria. Benthic microalgal populations were potentially nutrient-limited, based on responses to nitrogen and phosphorus enrichments in short-term (7-day) microcosm experiments. Benthic microalgal productivity, measured by O-2 evolution, indicated productive communities responsive to light and nutrient availability. The benthic microalgal concentrations observed (92-995 mg chl a m(-2)) were high relative to other reports, particularly compared with temperate regions. This abundance of productive plants in both reef and shelf sediments in the southern Great Barrier Reef suggests that benthic microalgae are key components of coral reef ecosystems.

Changes in quantum efficiency of Photosystem II of symbiotic dinoflagellates of corals after heat stress, and of bleached corals sampled after the 1998 Great Barrier Reef mass bleaching event Ross J. Jones , Selina Ward, Affendi Yang Amri and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg

Pulse-amplitude-modulation chlorophyll fluorometry was used to examine changes in dark-adapted F-v/F-m of endosymbiotic dinoflagellate microalgae within the tissues of the temperate coral Plesiastrea versipora exposed to elevated seawater temperature. The F-v/F-m was markedly reduced following exposure of corals to 28 degrees C for 48 h. When corals were returned to ambient (24 degrees C) conditions, F-v/F-m increased in an initial rapid and then secondary slower phase. Tissue discolouration (coral bleaching), caused by a significant decrease in the density of algae, was observed during the first 2-3 days of the recovery period. After 14 days, F-v/F-m was still significantly lower than in control corals. The recovery of F-v/F-m is discussed in terms of repair processes within the symbiotic algae, division of healthy algae and also the selective removal of photo-damaged dinoflagellates. Under field conditions, bleached corals sampled at Heron Island Reef during a bleaching event had significantly lower F-v/F-m than non-bleached colonies; four months after the bleaching event, there were no differences in F-v/F-m or algal density in corals marked as having bleached or having shown no signs of colour loss. The results of this laboratory and field study are consistent with the hypothesis that an impairment of photosynthesis occurs during heat-stress, and is the underlying cause of coral bleaching.

2,6,,9-trioxabicyclo[3.3.1]nona-3,7-dienes and 2,4,6,8-tetraoxaadamantanes: Novel chiral spacer units in macrocyclic polyethers

The unusual chiral heterocyclic systems, trioxabicyclo[3.3.1]nona-3,7-dienes (bridged bisdioxines), are incorporated as novel spacer molecules into macrocyclic polyether ring systems of various sizes (8, 9 as well as 11-15) by cyclocondensation reaction of the! bisacid chloride 4b or bisesters 6,7 and 10, with several ethylene glycols. The 2:2 macrocycles 12-14 are obtained in approximately 50:50 mixtures of diastereomers. These conclusions are mainly based on HPLC data presented in Table I as well as X-ray analyses of (1R,5R)-8c (space group Pbca, a = 10.163(3) Angstrom, b = 18.999(4) Angstrom, c = 36.187(10) Angstrom, V = 6987(3) Angstrom(3), Z = 8, d(calc) = 1.218 g cm(-3), 6974 reflections, R = 0.0553.), mesolrac-11 (space group P (1) over bar, a = 10.472(5) Angstrom, b = 16.390(5) Angstrom, c = 17.211(5) Angstrom, alpha = 98.69(2)degrees, beta = 93.04(2)degrees, gamma = 98.52(2)degrees, V = 2879.3(18) Angstrom(3), Z = 2, d(calc) = 1.173 g cm(-3), 11,162 reflections, R = 0.0945) and meso-12 (space group P2(1)/c, a = 9.927(2), b = 18.166(3), c = 17.820(3) Angstrom, beta = 96.590(10)degrees, V = 3192.3(10)Angstrom(3), Z = 4, D-c = 1.109 g cm(-3), 3490 reflections, R = 0.0646). The 1:1 macrocycles 8b,c are also formed by intramolecular transesterification of the open-chain bisesters 7b,c and their formation is favored by the use of metal ions as templates. The bridged bisdioxine moieties in 8b and 12 are converted into the corresponding chiral tetra-oxaadamantane spacers to afford macrocycles 16 and 17. Preliminary metal ion complexation studies with selected species (8c, 11-14) were also performed.

The 2.2 A crystal structure of a pocilloporin pigment reveals a nonplanar chromophore conformation

Reef-building corals contain host pigments, termed pocilloporins, that function to regulate the light environment of their resident microalgae by acting as a photoprotectant in excessive sunlight. We have determined the crystal structure of an intensely blue, non-fluorescent pocilloporin to 2.2 Angstrom resolution and a genetically engineered fluorescent variant to 2.4 Angstrom resolution. The pocilloporin chromophore structure adopts a markedly different conformation in comparison with the DsRed chromophore, despite the chromophore sequences (Gin-Tyr-Gly) being identical; the tyrosine ring of the pocilloporin chromophore is noncoplanar and in the trans configuration. Furthermore, the fluorescent variant adopted a noncoplanar chromophore conformation. The data presented here demonstrates that the conformation of the chromophore is highly dependent on its immediate environment.

Reconsidering the use of photosynthetic bacteria for removal of sulfide from wastewater

The feasibility of using photosynthetic sulfide-oxidizing bacteria to remove sulfide from wastewater in circumstances where axenic cultures are unrealistic has been completely reconsidered on the basis of known ecophysiological data, and the principles of photobioreactor and chemical reactor engineering. This has given rise to the development of two similar treatment concepts relying on biofilms dominated by green sulfur bacteria (GSB) that develop on the exterior of transparent surfaces suspended in the wastewater. The GSB are sustained and selected for by radiant energy in the band 720 - 780 nm, supplied from within the transparent surface. A model of one of these concepts was constructed and with it the reactor concept was proven. The dependence of sulfide-removal rate on bulk sulfide concentration has been ascertained. The maximum net areal sulfide removal rate was 2.23 g m(-2) day(-1) at a bulk sulfide concentration of 16.5 mg L-1 and an incident irradiance of 1.51 W m(-2). The system has a demonstrated capacity to mitigate surges in sulfide load, and appears to use much less radiant power than comparable systems. The efficacy with which this energy was used for sulfide removal was 1.47 g day(-1) W-1. The biofilm was dominated by GSB, and evidence gathered indicated that other types of phototrophs were not present. (C) 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The selection of a model microalgal species as biomaterial for a novel aquatic phytotoxicity assay

A phytotoxicity assay based on the ToxY-PAM dual-channel yield analyser has been developed and successfully incorporated into field assessments for the detection of phytotoxicants in water. As a means of further exploring the scope of the assay application and of selecting a model biomaterial to complement the instrument design, nine algal species were exposed to four chemical substances deemed of priority for water quality monitoring purposes (chlorpyrifos, copper, diuron and nonylphenol ethoxylate). Inter-species differences in sensitivity to the four toxicants varied by a factor of 1.9-100. Measurements of photosystem-II quantum yield using these nine single-celled microalgae as biomaterial corroborated previous studies which have shown that the ToxY-PAM dual-channel yield analyser is a highly sensitive method for the detection of PS-II impacting herbicides. Besides Phaeodactylum tricornutum, the previously applied biomaterial, three other species consistently performed well (Nitzschia closterium, Chlorella vulgaris and Dunaliella tertiolecta) and will be used in further test optimisation experiments. In addition to sensitivity, response time was evaluated and revealed a high degree of variation between species and toxicants. While most species displayed relatively weak and slow responses to copper, C. vulgaris demonstrated an IC10 of 51 μ g L-1, with maximum response measured within 25 minutes and inhibition being accompanied by a large decrease in fluorescence yield. The potential for this C vulgaris-based bioassay to be used for the detection of copper is discussed. There was no evidence that the standard ToxY-PAM protocol, using these unicellular algae species, could be used for the detection of chlorpyrifos or nonylphenol ethoxylate at environmentally relevant levels. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A review of the potential role of tumour-promoting compounds produced by Lyngbya majuscula in marine turtle fibropapillomatosis

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) have increased in abundance and severity in recent decades. Whereas the implications for human impacts and intoxication resulting from blooms have been extensively studied, the ecological implications of these microalgae are less well understood. Many HAB species produce biologically active, secondary metabolites and the fate of these toxins through the foodweb is generally not well understood unless it culminates in extensive fish mortalities or human poisonings. This review focusses on one HAB species, the cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula, and presents a hypothetical role for its involvement in fibro-papillornatosis (FP), a neoplastic disease of marine turtles. FP is expressed as benign tumours that grow both internally and externally on marine turtles, preventing vision, movement and organ function. The aetiology of FP is currently not conclusively understood, but virus material has been associated with tumours and previous studies have suggested a role for naturally produced tumour promoters. In this review, we present a hypothesis regarding the involvement of L. majuscula in FP, either through direct intoxication and action of tumour-promoting compounds or indirectly by causing seagrass loss and compromised immune function, thus leaving the turtles more susceptible to disease.

Lasers - An effective artificial source of radiation for the cultivation of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria

The laser diode (LD) is a unique light source that can efficiently produce all radiant energy within the narrow wavelength range used most effectively by a photosynthetic microorganism. We have investigated the use of a single type of LID for the cultivation of the well-studied anoxygenic photosynthetic bacterium, Rhodobacter capsulatus (Rb. capsulatus). An array of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) was driven with a current of 25 mA, and delivered radiation at 860 nm with 0.4 nm linewidth. The emitted light was found to be a suitable source of radiant energy for the cultivation of Rb. capsulatus. The dependence of growth rate on incident irradiance was quantified. Despite the unusual nearly monochromatic light source used in these experiments, no significant changes in the pigment composition and in the distribution of bacteriochlorophyll between LHII and LHI-RC were detected in bacterial cells transferred from incandescent light to laser light. We were also able to show that to achieve a given growth rate in a light-limited culture, the VCSEL required only 30% of the electricity needed by an incandescent bulb, which is of great significance for the potential use of laser-devices in biotechnological applications and photobioreactor construction. (c) 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Microbial Fuel Cells: Methodology and Technology

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) research is a rapidly evolving field that lacks established terminology and methods for the analysis of system performance. This makes it difficult for researchers to compare devices on an equivalent basis. The construction and analysis of MFCs requires knowledge of different scientific and engineering fields, ranging from microbiology and electrochemistry to materials and environmental engineering. DescribingMFCsystems therefore involves an understanding of these different scientific and engineering principles. In this paper, we provide a review of the different materials and methods used to construct MFCs, techniques used to analyze system performance, and recommendations on what information to include in MFC studies and the most useful ways to present results.

Phytotoxicity of surface waters of the Thames and Brisbane River Estuaries: A combined chemical analysis and bioassay approach for the comparison of two systems

The Thames Estuary, UK, and the Brisbane River, Australia, are comparable in size and catchment area. Both are representative of the large and growing number of the world's estuaries associated with major cities. Principle differences between the two systems relate to climate and human population pressures. In order to assess the potential phytotoxic impact of herbicide residues in the estuaries, surface waters were analysed with a PAM fluorometry-based bioassay that employs the photosynthetic efficiency (photosystem II quantum yield) of laboratory cultured microalgae, as an endpoint measure of phytotoxicity. In addition, surface waters were chemically analysed for a limited number of herbicides. Diuron atrazine and simazine were detected in both systems at comparable concentrations. In contrast, bioassay results revealed that whilst detected herbicides accounted for the observed phytotoxicity of Brisbane River extracts with great accuracy, they consistently explained only around 50% of the phytotoxicity induced by Thames Estuary extracts. Unaccounted for phytotoxicity in Thames surface waters is indicative of unidentified phytotoxins. The greatest phytotoxic response was measured at Charing Cross, Thames Estuary, and corresponded to a diuron equivalent concentration of 180 ng L-1. The study employs relative potencies (REP) of PSII impacting herbicides and demonstrates that chemical analysis alone is prone to omission of valuable information. Results of the study provide support for the incorporation of bioassays into routine monitoring programs where bioassay data may be used to predict and verify chemical contamination data, alert to unidentified compounds and provide the user with information regarding cumulative toxicity of complex mixtures. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Spatial and temporal variation in algal-assemblage structure in isolated dryland river waterholes, Cooper Creek and Warrego River, Australia

The scale at which algal biodiversity is partitioned across the landscape, and the biophysical processes and biotic interactions which shape these communities in dryland river refugia was studied on two occasions from 30 sites in two Australian dryland rivers. Despite the waterholes studied having characteristically high levels of abiogenic turbidity, a total of 186 planktonic microalgae, 253 benthic diatom and 62 macroalgal species were recorded. The phytoplankton communities were dominated by flagellated cryptophytes, euglenophytes and chlorophytes, the diatom communities by cosmopolitan taxa known to tolerate wide environmental conditions, and the macroalgal communities by filamentous cyanobacteria. All algal communities showed significant differences between catchments and sampling times, with a suite of between 5 and 12 taxa responsible for similar to 50% of the observed change. In general, algal assemblage patterns were poorly correlated with the measured environmental variables. Phytoplankton and diatom assemblage patterns were weakly correlated with several waterhole geomorphic measures, whereas macroalgal assemblage patterns showed some association with variability in ionic concentration.