A worldwide correlation for exponential bed particle size variation in subaerial aqueous flows

The particle size of the bed sediments in or on many natural streams, alluvial fans, laboratory flumes, irrigation canals and mine waste deltas varies exponentially with distance along the stream. A plot of the available worldwide exponential bed particle size diminution coefficient data against stream length is presented which shows that all the data lie within a single narrow band extending over virtually the whole range of stream lengths and bed sediment particle sizes found on Earth. This correlation applies to both natural and artificial flows with both sand and gravel beds, irrespective of either the solids concentration or whether normal or reverse sorting occurs. This strongly suggests that there are common mechanisms underlying the exponential diminution of bed particles in subaerial aqueous flows of all kinds. Thus existing models of sorting and abrasion applicable to some such flows may be applicable to others. A comparison of exponential laboratory abrasion and field diminution coefficients suggests that abrasion is unlikely to be significant in gravel and sand bed streams shorter than about 10 km to 100 km, and about 500 km, respectively. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Analysis of soil wetting and solute transport in subsurface trickle irrigation

The increased use of trickle or drip irrigation is seen as one way of helping to improve the sustainability of irrigation systems around the world. However, soil water and solute transport properties and soil profile characteristics are often not adequately incorporated in the design and management of trickle systems. In this paper, we describe results of a simulation study designed to highlight the impacts of soil properties on water and solute transport from buried trickle emitters. The analysis addresses the influence of soil hydraulic properties, soil layering, trickle discharge rate, irrigation frequency, and timing of nutrient application on wetting patterns and solute distribution. We show that (1) trickle irrigation can improve plant water availability in medium and low permeability fine-textured soils, providing that design and management are adapted to account for their soil hydraulic properties, (2) in highly permeable coarse-textured soils, water and nutrients move quickly downwards from the emitter, making it difficult to wet the near surface zone if emitters are buried too deep, and (3) changing the fertigation strategy for highly permeable coarse-textured soils to apply nutrients at the beginning of an irrigation cycle can maintain larger amounts of nutrient near to and above the emitter, thereby making them less susceptible to leaching losses. The results demonstrate the need to account for differences in soil hydraulic properties and solute transport when designing irrigation and fertigation management strategies. Failure to do this will result in inefficient systems and lost opportunities for reducing the negative environmental impacts of irrigation.

The management of rice grown on raised beds with continuous furrow irrigation

A field experiment compared two rice (Oryza sativa L.) cropping systems: paddy or raised beds with continuous furrow irrigation; and trialled four cultivars: Starbonnet, Lemont, Amaroo and Ceysvoni, and one test line YRL39; that may vary in adaptation to growth on raised beds. The grain yield of rice ranged from 740 to 1250 g/m(2) and was slightly greater in paddy than on raised beds. Although there were early growth responses to fertilizer nitrogen on raised beds, the crop nitrogen content at maturity mostly exceeded 20 g/m(2) in both systems, so nitrogen was unlikely to have limited yield. Ceysvoni yielded best in both systems, a result of good post-anthesis growth and larger grain size, although its whole-grain mill-out percentage was poor relative to the other cultivars. Starbonnet and Lemont yielded poorly on raised beds, associated with too few tillers and too much leaf area. When grown on raised beds all cultivars experienced a delay in anthesis resulting in more tillers, leaf area and dry weight at anthesis, and probably a greater yield potential. The growth of rice after anthesis, however, was similar on raised beds and in paddy, so reductions in harvest index and grain size on raised beds were recorded. The data indicated that water supply was not a major limitation to rice growth on raised beds, but slower crop development was an issue that would affect the use of raised beds in a cropping system, especially in rice-growing areas where temperatures are too cool for optimal crop development. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Sugarcane water use from shallow water tables: implications for improving irrigation water use efficiency

The resource potential of shallow water tables for cropping systems has been investigated using the Australian sugar industry as a case study. Literature concerning shallow water table contributions to sugarcane crops has been summarised, and an assessment of required irrigation for water tables to depths of 2 m investigated using the SWIMv2.1 soil water balance model for three different soils. The study was undertaken because water availability is a major limitation for sugarcane and other crop production systems in Australia and knowledge on how best to incorporate upflow from water tables in irrigation scheduling is limited. Our results showed that for the three soils studied (representing a range of permeabilities as defined by near-saturated hydraulic conductivities), no irrigation would be required for static water tables within 1 m of the soil surface. Irrigation requirements when static water tables exceeded 1 m depth were dependent on the soil type and rooting characteristics (root depth and density). Our results also show that the near-saturated hydraulic conductivities are a better indicator of the ability of water tables below 1 m to supply sufficient upflow as opposed to soil textural classifications. We conclude that there is potential for reductions in irrigation and hence improvements in irrigation water use efficiency in areas where shallow water tables are a low salinity risk: either fresh, or the local hydrology results in net recharge. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Using multivariate analysis to predict the behaviour of soils under effluent irrigation

Onsite wastewater treatment systems aim to assimilate domestic effluent into the environment. Unfortunately failure of such systems is common and inadequate effluent treatment can have serious environmental implications. The capacity of a particular soil to treat wastewater will change over time. The physical properties influence the rate of effluent movement through the soil and its chemical properties dictate the ability to renovate effluent. A research project was undertaken to determine the role that physical and chemical soil properties play in predicting the long-term behaviour of soil under effluent irrigation and to determine if they have a potential function as early indicators of adverse effects of effluent irrigation on treatment sustainability. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis grouped the soils independently of their soil classifications and allowed us to distinguish the most suitable soils for sustainable long term effluent irrigation and determine the most influential soil parameters to characterise them. Multivariate analysis allowed a clear distinction between soils based on the cation exchange capacities. This in turn correlated well with the soil mineralogy. Mixed mineralogy soils in particular sodium or magnesium dominant soils are the most susceptible to dispersion under effluent irrigation. The soil Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) was identified as a crucial parameter and was highly correlated with percentage clay, electrical conductivity, exchangeable sodium, exchangeable magnesium and low Ca:Mg ratios (less than 0.5).

Modelling trickle irrigation: Comparison of analytical and numerical models for estimation of wetting front position with time

Irrigation practices that are profligate in their use of water have come under closer scrutiny by water managers and the public. Trickle irrigation has the propensity to increase water use efficiency but only if the system is designed to meet the soil and plant conditions. Recently we have provided a software tool, WetUp (http://www.clw.csiro.au/products/wetup/), to calculate the wetting patterns from trickle irrigation emitters. WetUp uses an analytical solution to calculate the wetted perimeter for both buried and surface emitters. This analytical solution has a number of assumptions, two of which are that the wetting front is defined by water content at which the hydraulic conductivity (K) is I mm day(-1) and that the flow occurs from a point source. Here we compare the wetting patterns calculated with a 2-dimensional numerical model, HYDRUS2D, for solving the water flow into typical soils with the analytical solution. The results show that the wetting patterns are similar, except when the soil properties result in the assumption of a point source no longer being a good description of the flow regime. Difficulties were also experienced with getting stable solutions with HYDRUS2D for soils with low hydraulic conductivities. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.