Heritage language loss and the implications for ethnic identity maintenance over time

Language has been seen as a central pillar to ethnic identity. When the possibility of heritage language loss becomes imminent, therefore, concern turns towards the consequences for feelings of ethnic group membership. Heritage language researchers have indicated that the heritage language is so strongly associated with the individual’s cultural background that heritage language loss could have negative implications for the sense of identity to the ethnic group. This study investigates the relationship between language and ethnic identity over time among Gaelic learners in Nova Scotia. In order to identify the specific processes of heritage language use, the Gaelic learners are compared to French (second language), learners living in the same English-speaking milieu. Path analyses reveal that, only among Gaelic learners, there is an initial separation of language and ethnic identity, but that, over time, ethnic identity is a direct outcome of language use. The results support Edwards’ (1985), contention, at least in the case of heritage languages, that language and identity are not always strongly linked. It is suggested that this may be especially true in contexts where there is little opportunity for contact with members of the heritage language group.

Direct protein interaction underlies gene-for-gene specificity and coevolution of the flax resistance genes and flax rust avirulence genes

Plant resistance proteins (R proteins) recognize corresponding pathogen avirulence (Avr) proteins either indirectly through detection of changes in their host protein targets or through direct R-Avr protein interaction. Although indirect recognition imposes selection against Avr effector function, pathogen effector molecules recognized through direct interaction may overcome resistance through sequence diversification rather than loss of function. Here we show that the flax rust fungus AvrLS67 genes, whose products are recognized by the L5, L6, and L7 R proteins of flax, are highly diverse, with 12 sequence variants identified from six rust strains. Seven AvrL567 variants derived from Avr alleles induce necrotic responses when expressed in flax plants containing corresponding resistance genes (R genes), whereas five variants from avr alleles do not. Differences in recognition specificity between AvA567 variants and evidence for diversifying selection acting on these genes suggest they have been involved in a gene-specific arms race with the corresponding flax R genes. Yeast two-hybrid assays indicate that recognition is based on direct R-Avr protein interaction and recapitulate the interaction specificity observed in planta. Biochemical analysis of Escherichia coli-produced AvrL567 proteins shows that variants that escape recognition nevertheless maintain a conserved structure and stability, suggesting that the amino acid sequence differences directly affect the R-Avr protein interaction. We suggest that direct recognition associated with high genetic diversity at corresponding R and Avr gene loci represents an alternative outcome of plant-pathogen coevolution to indirect recognition associated with simple balanced polymorphisms for functional and nonfunctional R and Avr genes.