New Treatments for Addiction: Behavioural, Ethical,Legal and Social Questions: Harwood & T. G. Myers eds (Book review)

This book is an exemplar of what the National Academy of Science does so well: to assemble a cast of very wellinformed and clever experts; to ask them to think hard and critically about an important issue over a substantial period of time; and to seek a consensus, if possible and failing that, to identify the critical issues on which wellinformed people disagree and to specify the evidence that has the greatest epistemic leverage in resolving disagreements.

Reflecting on ethical and legal issues in wildlife disease

Disease in wildlife raises a number of issues that have not been widely considered in the bioethical literature. However, wildlife disease has major implications for human welfare. The majority of emerging human infectious diseases are zoonotic: that is, they occur in humans by cross-species transmission from animal hosts. Managing these diseases often involves balancing concerns with human health against animal welfare and conservation concerns. Many infectious diseases of domestic animals are shared with wild animals, although it is often unclear whether the infection spills over from wild animals to domestic animals or vice versa. Culling is the standard means of managing such diseases, bringing economic considerations, animal welfare and conservation into conflict. Infectious diseases are also major threatening processes in conservation biology and their appropriate management by culling, vaccination or treatment raises substantial animal ethics issues. One particular issue of great significance in Australia is an ongoing research program to develop genetically modified pathogens to control vertebrate pests including rabbits, foxes and house mice. Release of any self-replicating GMO vertebrate pathogen gives rise to a whole series of ethical questions. We briefly review current Australian legal responses to these problems. Finally, we present two unresolved problems of general importance that are exemplified by wildlife disease. First, to what extent can or should 'bioethics' be broadened beyond direct concerns with human welfare to animal welfare and environmental welfare? Second, how should the irreducible uncertainty of ecological systems be accounted for in ethical decision making?

The effects of caffeine consumption on direct and indirect majority and minority influence

A study is reported that examines the effect of caffeine consumption on majority and minority influence. In a double blind procedure, 72 participants consumed an orange drink, which either contained caffeine (3.5mg per kilogram of body weight) or did not (placebo). After a 40-minute delay, participants read a counter-attitudinal message (antivoluntary euthanasia) endorsed by either a numerical majority or minority. Both direct (message issue, i.e., voluntary euthanasia) and indirect (message issue-related, i.e., abortion) change was assessed by attitude scales completed before and after exposure to the message. In the placebo condition, the findings replicated the predictions of Moscovici's (1980) conversion theory; namely, majorities leading to compliance (direct influence) and minorities leading to conversion (indirect influence). When participants had consumed caffeine, majorities not only led to more direct influence than in the placebo condition but also to indirect influence. Minorities, by contrast, had no impact on either level of influence. The results suggest that moderate levels of caffeine increase systematic processing of the message but the consequences of this vary for each source. When the source is a majority there was increased indirect influence while for a minority there was decreased indirect influence. The results show the need to understand how contextual factors can affect social influence processes.

The self-reported impact of legal and non-legal sanctions on a group of recidivist drink drivers

Concern remains regarding the efficacy of legal sanctions to reduce drink driving behaviours among repeat offenders. The present study examined the impact of traditional legal sanctions (e.g., fines and licence disqualification periods), nonlegal sanctions, alcohol consumption and the frequency of recent offending behaviour(s) on intentions to re-offend for a group of recidivist drink drivers (N=166). The analysis indicated that participants perceived legal sanctions to be severe, but not entirely certain nor swift. In addition, self-reported recent drink driving behaviours and alcohol consumption levels were identified as predictors of future intentions to drink and drive. The findings of the study confirm the popular assumption that some repeat offenders are impervious to the threat and application of legal sanctions and suggests that additional interventions such as alcohol treatment programs are required if the drinking and driving sequence is to be broken for this population. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effects of memory load and distraction on performance and event-related slow potentials in a visuospatial working memory task

Brain electrical activity related to working memory was recorded at 15 scalp electrodes during a visuospatial delayed response task. Participants (N = 18) touched the remembered position of a target on a computer screen after either a 1 or 8 sec delay. These memory trials were compared to sensory trials in which the target remained present throughout the delay and response periods. Distracter stimuli identical to the target were briefly presented during the delay on 30% of trials. Responses were less accurate in memory than sensory trials, especially after the long delay. During the delay slow potentials developed that were significantly more negative in memory than sensory trials. The difference between memory and sensory trials was greater at anterior than posterior electrodes. On trials with distracters, the slow potentials generated by memory trials showed further enhancement of negativity whereas there were minimal effects on accuracy of performance. The results provide evidence that engagement of visuospatial working memory generates slow wave negativity with a timing and distribution consistent with frontal activation. Enhanced brain activity associated with working memory is required to maintain performance in the presence of distraction. © 1997 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Perceived self-other differences in persuasibility: the effects of interpersonal and group-based similarity

Two experiments examined the effects of interpersonal and group-based similarity on perceived self-other differences in persuasibility (i.e. on third-person effects, Davison, 1983). Results of Experiment 1 (N=121), based on experimentally-created groups, indicated that third-person perceptions with respect to the impact of televised product ads were accentuated when the comparison was made with interpersonally different others. Contrary to predictions, third-person perceptions were not affected by group-based similarity (i.e. ingroup or outgroup other). Results of Experiment 2 (N = 102), based an an enduring social identity, indicated that both interpersonal and group-based similarity moderated perceptions of the impact on self and other of least-liked product ads. Overall, third-person effects were more pronounced with respect to interpersonally dissimilar others. However, when social identity was salient, information about interpersonal similarity of the target did not affect perceived self-other differences with respect to ingroup targets. Results also highlighted significant differences in third-person perceptions according to the perceiver's affective evaluation of the persuasive message. (C) 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Extended delayed recall of AVLT word lists: Effects of age and sex on adult performance

An extension of a previous study of age and sex effects on verbal recall (Geffen, Moar, O'Hanlon, lark, & Geffen, 1990) examined forgetting of words over extended delays. The AVLT was administered to 201 normal adults (99 males, 102 females) ranging in age between 20 and 59 years. Recall was tested at intervals of 30 minutes, 24 hours, and 7 days after acquisition. Testing of the latter two intervals was conducted by telephone (Experiment 1, N = 177). After 30 minutes there was no significant loss of the 10 to 11 words retained from five acquisition trials. However, an overall mean of about one word was forgotten after 1 day and a further word after 7 days. The oldest age group (50-59 years) acquired fewer words and forgot more words than the younger groups. Females of all age groups performed slightly better than males at acquisition, at retention, and at recall after longer delays. A second experiment showed that telephone testing at the longer delay intervals was equivalent to testing face to face. These results extend the use of the AVLT by assessing memory decay beyond the immediate testing period. Telephone follow-up is a convenient and economical method of testing delayed recall.

Comparative in vitro effects of closantel and selected beta-ketoamide anthelmintics on a gastrointestinal nematode and vertebrate liver cells

PNU-87407 and PrNU-88509, beta-ketoamide anthelmintics that are structurally related to each other and to the salicylanilide anthelmintic closantel, exhibit different anthelmintic spectra and apparent toxicity in mammals, The basis for this differential pharmacology was examined in experiments that measured motility and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels in larval and adult stages of the gastrointestinal nematode, Haemonchus contortus, and in a vertebrate liver cell line and mitochondria, PNU-87407 and PNU-88509 both exhibited functional cross-resistance with closantel in larval migration assays using closantel-resistant and -sensitive isolates of H, contortus. Each compound reduced motility and,ATP levels in cultured adult H. contortus in a concentration- and time-dependent manner: however, motility was reduced more rapidly by PNU-88509, and ATP levels were reduced by lower concentrations of closantel than the beta-ketoamides. Tension recordings from segments of adult H, contortus showed that PNU-88509 induces spastic paralysis, while PNU-87407 and closantel induce flaccid paralysis of the somatic musculature. Marked differences in the actions of these compounds were also observed in the mammalian preparations. In Chang liver cells, ATP levels were reduced after 3 h exposures to greater than or equal to 0.25 mu M PNU-87407 1 mu M closantel or 10 mu M PNU-88509, Reductions in ATP caused by PNU-88509 were completely reversible, while the effects of closantel and PNU-87407; were irreversible. PNU-87407, closantel and PNU-88509 uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation in isolated rat liver mitochondria, inhibiting the respiratory control index (with glutamate or succinate as substrate) by 50% at concentrations of 0.14, 0.9 and 7.6 mu M respectively.

Antipronation taping and temporary orthoses - Effects on tibial rotation position after exercise

Abnormal lower-limb biomechanics-in particular, abnormal pronation of the subtalar joint with concomitant increased internal rotation of the tibia-is one of the major causes of overuse injuries of the lower limb. A randomized, controlled, within-subjects research design (N = 14) was used to investigate the effect of a temporary felt orthosis and an antipronation taping technique to control the transverse tibial rotation position immediately after application and after each of two 10-minute periods of exercise. The results showed that the taping technique was superior to both the orthosis and no intervention in controlling tibial rotation position immediately after application and after 10 minutes of exercise. After 20 minutes of exercise, neither the tape nor the orthosis was significantly superior to the control; however, the trends suggested that some residual control was maintained. Future studies are needed to determine the amount of foot pronation control required to relieve symptoms in a symptomatic population in order to determine the clinical effectiveness of these treatment methods.

Ontological changes in the crystallin composition of the eye lenses of the territorial damselfish Parma microlepis and their possible effects on trace-metal accumulation

The eye lenses of Parma microlepis from the rocky barrens of Sydney (New South Wales, Australia) were found to contain Ba, Hg, Rb, and Sr at concentrations above the quantitative detection limits of solution-based inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Lenses were separated into the hard central nucleus and the softer surrounding cortex. Nuclei contained lower (equal for Ba) concentrations of these metals. Biochemical analysis of the protein composition of these lenses revealed differences in the ratio of gamma-crystallin to beta-crystallin in the lens nucleus and cortex. These changes were shown to be attributable both to protein degradation and changes in protein synthesis as fish age. Such changes may lead to the loss of sequestered metals from older cell layers, or change the affinity of new layers for particular trace metals. Differential binding affinities of these crystallins may, therefore, partially account for trace-metal differences observed in the lens nucleus and cortex.

A comparative study of the effects of UV- and gamma-radiation on copolymers of acrylonitrile/butadiene

The radiolysis of nitrile rubbers with different acrylonitrile/butadiene composition and the homopolymers, poly(butadiene) (PBD) and poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN) has been investigated and compared with the photolysis of the same polymers. A significantly different mechanism of degradation was found for the two types of radiation. The results obtained by ESR, FTIR and measurements of soluble fractions of irradiated samples, indicated that the acrylonitrile units of the nitrile rubbers are more sensitive units to gamma-radiation, with the effects of irradiation increasing with the acrylonitrile content. The reactions observed were consumption of double bonds, crosslinking, and cyclization with the formation of conjugated double bonds. No chain-scission reactions were detected. In contrast to gamma-irradiation, the effects of photolysis were centred at the butadiene units, and increases in the acrylonitrile content resulted in a proportional decrease in the sensitivity of the copolymers. Crosslinking and chain scission were identified as the main effects of photolysis of NBR rubbers. (C) 1999 Society of Chemical Industry.

Parental reactions to infant death: The effects of resources and coping strategies

The aim of this research was to examine, from a stress and coping perspective, the effects of resources (both personal and environmental) and coping strategies on parental reactions to infant death. One hundred and twenty-seven parents (60 fathers, 67 mothers) participated in the study. The predictors of parental distress (background factors, resources, coping methods) were initially assessed at 4-6 weeks post-loss. Parental distress (assessed using a composite measure of psychiatric disturbance, physical symptoms, and perinatal grief) was further assessed at 6 months post-loss and at 15 months postloss. After control for the stability in adjustment across time, there was consistent evidence that higher levels of education were associated with lower levels of parental distress over time. Among mothers, the number of friends in whom mothers had the confidence to confide emerged as a positive predictor of adjustment to infant death. A reliance on problem-focused coping was associated with greater maternal distress at 6 months post-loss, whereas coping by seeking support was associated with less distress at 15 months post-loss. There is no evidence that background factors and resources influenced parental distress through coping.

Effects of acid treatments of carbon on N2O and NO reduction by carbon-supported copper catalysts

The influences of HCl, HNO3 and HF treatments of carbon on N2O and NO reduction with 20 wt% Cu-loaded activated carbon were studied. The order of activity in both N2O and NO is as follows: Cu20/AC-HNO3>Cu20/AC>Cu20/AC-HF>Cu20/AC-HCl. The same sequence was also observed for the amount of CO2 evolved during TPD experiments of supports acid for the catalyst dispersion. On the other hand, N2O exhibited a higher reaction rate than NO and a higher sensitivity to acid treatments, and the presence of gas-phase O-2 had opposite effects in N2O and NO reduction. The key role of carbon surface chemistry is examined to rationalize these findings and the relevant mechanistic and practical implications are discussed. The effects of oxygen surface groups on the pore structure of supports and catalysts are also analyzed, (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chronic ethanol has region-selective effects on Egr-1 and Egr-3 DNA-binding activity and protein expression in the rat brain

This study focused on the DNA-binding activity and protein expression of the transcription factors Egr-1 and Egr-3 in the rat brain cortex and hippocampus after chronic or acute ethanol exposure. DNA-binding activity was reduced in both regions after chronic ethanol exposure and was restored to the level of the pair-fed group at 16 h of withdrawal. Cortical Egr-1 protein levels were not altered by chronic ethanol exposure but increased 16 h after withdrawal, thus mirroring DNA-binding activity. In contrast, Egr-3 protein levels did not undergo any change. There was no change in the level of either protein in the hippocampus. Immunohistochemistry revealed a region-selective change in immunopositive cells in the cortex and hippocampus. Finally, an acute bolus dose of ethanol did not affect Egr DNA-binding activity and ethanol treatment did not alter the DNA-binding activity or protein levels of the transcription factor Spl. These observations suggest that chronic exposure to ethanol has region-selective effects on the DNA-binding activity and protein expression of Egr-1 and Egr-3 transcription factors in the rat brain. These changes occur after prolonged ethanol exposure and may thus reflect neuroadaptive changes associated with physical dependency and withdrawal. These effects are also transcription factor-selective. Clearly, protein expression is not the sole mediator of the changes in DNA-binding activity and chronic ethanol exposure must have effects on modulatory agents of Egr DNA-binding activity. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd, All rights reserved.