Diversity in the sunflower: Puccinia helianthi pathosystem in Australia

Sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi is the most important disease of sunflower in Australia with the potential to cause significant yield losses in susceptible hybrids. Rapid and frequent virulence changes in the rust fungus population limit the effective lifespan of commercial cultivars and impose constant pressure on breeding programs to identify and deploy new sources of resistance. This paper contains a synopsis of virulence data accumulated over 25 years, and more recent studies of genotypic diversity and sexual recombination. We have used this synopsis, generated from both published and unpublished data, to propose the origin, evolution and distribution of new pathotypes of P. helianthi. Virulence surveys revealed that diverse pathotypes of P. helianthi evolve in wild sunflower populations, most likely because sexual recombination and subsequent selection of recombinant pathotypes occurs there. Wild sunflower populations provide a continuum of genetically heterogeneous hosts on which P. helianthi can potentially complete its sexual cycle under suitable environmental conditions. Population genetics analysis of a worldwide collection of P. helianthi indicated that Australian isolates of the pathogen are more diverse than non-Australian isolates. Additionally, the presence of the same pathotype in different genotypic backgrounds supported evidence from virulence data that sexual recombination has occurred in the Australian population of P. helianthi at some time. A primary aim of the work described was to apply our knowledge of pathotype evolution to improve resistance in sunflower to sunflower rust. Molecular markers were identified for a number of previously uncharacterised sunflower rust R-genes. These markers have been used to detect resistance genes in breeding lines and wild sunflower germplasm. A number of virulence loci that do not recombine were identified in P. helianthi. The resistance gene combinations corresponding to these virulence loci are currently being introgressed with breeding lines to generate hybrids with durable resistance to sunflower rust.

Genetic diversity of human metapneumovirus over 4 consecutive years in Australia

The molecular epidemiologic profile of human metapneumovirus (hMPV) infection has likely been skewed toward certain genetic subtypes because of assay-design issues, and no comprehensive studies have been conducted to date. Here, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to screen 10,319 specimens from patients presenting to hospitals with suspected respiratory tract infections during 2001 - 2004. After analysis of 727 Australian hMPV strains, 640 were assigned to 1 of 4 previously described subtypes. hMPV was the most common pathogen detected, and subtype B1 was the most common lineage. Concurrent, annual circulation of all 4 hMPV subtypes in our study population was common, with a single, usually different hMPV subtype predominating in each year.

How is leflunomide prescribed and used in Australia? analysis of prescribing and adverse effect reporting

Purpose To evaluate the use of leflunomide in the Australian community since introduction in 2000. Trends in adverse drug reaction (ADR) reporting were also studied. Methods Annual Australian prescription and dispensing statistics were analysed. Drug utilisation was estimated as defined daily doses (DDD)/1000 inhabitants/day. ADR data from the Therapeutic Goods Administration's Adverse Drug Reactions Advisory Committee (ADRAC) national monitoring system were compared with the World Health Organisation (WHO) Vigibase records. Results Leflunomide use in Australia (dispensing data) increased from 0.2 in 2000 to 0.4 DDD/1000 inhabitants/day in 2002. The same overall pattern was observed in the 'authority to prescribe' data. From 2000-2002, prescribing of the starter pack (3 x 100 mg loading dose plus 30 x 20 mg tablets) declined (down 74%); likewise for the 20mg (30 tablets) pack. Gradual increases were noted for the 10 mg (30 tablets) pack (up 40%). Approximately 135 reports, detailing about 370 individual ADR, were generated annually. Gastro-intestinal disorders predominated, accounting for 24% of reactions reported to ADRAC. Skin and appendages disorders constituted 14% of reported reactions. Deaths in leflunomide users were attributed to a combination of haematological and gastro-intestinal complications, but it was not possible to ascertain other medication usage or contributing factors. Trends observed with the ADRAC reports were consistent with the WHO database. Conclusions Leflunomide was the first registered DMARD in Australia in over a decade and its use has increased within the community. The ADR reports might have contributed to Australian rheumatologists gradually abandoning loading patients with high doses of leflunomide in favour of starting therapy at lower doses. Copyright (c) 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Palliative care training: a survey of physicians in Australia and Europe

The purpose of this paper is to present data about the level and background characteristics of physicians' training in palliative care in Australia (AU), Belgium (BE), Denmark (DK), Italy (IT), the Netherlands (NL), Sweden (SE) and Switzerland (CH) (n=16,486). The response rate to an anonymous questionnaire differed between countries (39%-68%). In most countries approximately half of all responding physicians had any formal training in palliative care (median: 3-10 days). Exceptions were NL (78%) and IT (35%). The most common type of training was a postgraduate course. Physicians in nursing home medicine (only in NL), geriatrics, oncology (not in NL), and general practice had the most training. In all seven countries, physicians with such training discussed options for palliative care and options to forgo life-sustaining treatment more often with their patients than did physicians without. Irrespective of earlier palliative care training, 87%-98% of the physicians wanted extended training.

Skin cancer clinics in Australia: workload profile and performance indicators from an analysis of billing data

Objective: To describe the workload profile in a network of Australian skin cancer clinics. Design and setting: Analysis of billing data for the first 6 months of 2005 in a primary-care skin cancer clinic network, consisting of seven clinics and staffed by 20 doctors, located in the Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales. Main outcome measures: Consultation to biopsy ratio (CBR); biopsy to treatment ratio (BTR); number of benign naevi excised per melanoma (number needed to treat [NNT]). Results: Of 69780 billed activities, 34 622 (49.6%) were consultations, 19 358 (27.7%) biopsies, 8055 (11.5%) surgical excisions, 2804 (4.0%) additional surgical repairs, 1613 (2.3%) non-surgical treatments of cancers and 3328 (4.8%) treatments of premalignant or non-malignant lesions. A total of 6438 cancers were treated (116 melanomas by excision, 4709 non-melanoma skin cancers [NMSCs] by excision, and 1613 NMSCs non-surgically); 5251 (65.2%) surgical wounds were repaired by direct suture, 2651 (32.9%) by a flap (of which 44.8% were simple flaps), 42 (0.5%) by wedge excision and 111 (1.4%) by grafts. The CBR was 1.79, the BTR was 3.1 and the NNT was 28.6. Conclusions: In this network of Australian skin cancer clinics, one in three biopsies identified a skin cancer (BTR, 3.1), and about 29 benign lesions were excised per melanoma (NNT, 28.6). The estimated NNT was similar to that reported previously in general practice. More data are needed on health outcomes, including effectiveness of treatment and surgical repair.

Trends in morphine prescriptions, illicit morphine use and associated harms among regular injecting drug users in Australia

This paper examines population trends in morphine prescriptions in Australia, and contrasts them with findings from annual surveys with regular injecting drug users (IDU). Data on morphine prescriptions from 1995 to 2003 were obtained from the Drug Monitoring System (DRUMS) run by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. Data collected from regular IDU as part of the Australian Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS) were analysed (2001-2004). The rate of morphine prescription per person aged 15-54 years increased by 89% across Australia between 1995 and 2003 (from 46.3 to 85.9 mg per person). Almost half (46%) of IDU surveyed in 2004 reported illicit morphine use, with the highest rates in jurisdictions where heroin was less available. Recent morphine injectors were significantly more likely to be male, unemployed, out of treatment and homeless in comparison to IDU who had not injected morphine. They were also more likely to have injected other pharmaceutical drugs and to report injection related problems. Among those who had injected morphine recently, the most commonly reported injecting harms were morphine dependence (38%), difficulty finding veins into which to inject (36%) and scarring or bruising (27%). Morphine use and injection is a common practice among regular IDU in Australia. In some cases, morphine may be a substitute for illicit heroin; in others, it may be being used to treat heroin dependence where other pharmacotherapies, such as methadone and buprenorphine, are perceived as being unavailable or undesirable by IDU. Morphine injection appears to be associated with polydrug use, and with it, a range of problems related to drug injection. Further research is required to monitor and reduce morphine diversion and related harms by such polydrug injectors.

Standardising bull breeding soundness evaluations and reporting in Australia

There is substantial variation in bull breeding soundness evaluation procedures and reports in Australia; the situation is compounded by difficulties in interpretation and the validity of many reports. In an effort to overcome this, the scientific literature was reviewed [Fordyce G. In: Fordyce G, editor. Bull fertility: selection and management in Australia. Eight Mile Plains, Australia: Australian Cattle Vets; 2002] and the needs of stakeholders were considered in preparing a manual, Evaluating and Reporting Bull Fertility [Entwistle KW, Fordyce G. Evaluating and reporting bull fertility. Eight Mile Plains, Australia: Australian Cattle Vets; 2003.] that outlined standards for assessing and reporting bull breeding soundness. A new recording and reporting system, called Bull Reporter, is based on standards from this manual and groups bull fertility traits into five summary categories: Scrotum, Physical, Crush-side Semen, Sperm Morphology, and Serving. The client will generally select which categories they wish to have included in the evaluation to suit their specific purposes. While there is adequate room for comments, the veterinarian is not required to make an overall judgment of whether the bull has normal capacity to sire calves under natural mating management, but ensures the standards for each selected category are met. Professional, standardised, easy-to-read reports are produced either electronically [Entwistle KW, Fordyce G. Evaluating and reporting bull fertility. Eight Mile Plains, Australia: Australian Cattle Vets; 2003.] or manually. A bull owner or their agent signs the certificate to affirm that bulls have not undergone procedures to rectify faults which may have otherwise caused them to fail the standards. An accreditation system for assessing sperm morphology was established because of its demonstrated relationship with pregnancy rates and because of the difficulties in achieving consistent and accurate assessments among laboratories. It is considered that Bull Reporter is applicable to beef and dairy bulls across all levels of management, genotypes and environments throughout Australia, with substantial potential for application elsewhere in the world. Crown Copyright (c) 2006 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Molecular subtyping of feline immunodeficiency virus from domestic cats in Australia

Objective To determine the prevalent subtypes of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) present in the domestic cat population of Australia. Method Blood samples were collected from 41 FIV antibody positive cats from four cities across Australia. Following DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to amplify the variable V3-V5 region of the envelope (env) gene. Genotypes were assessed by direct sequencing of PCR products and comparison with previously reported FIV sequences. Phylogenetic analysis allowed classification of the Australian sequences into the appropriate subtype. Results Of the 41 FIV samples, 40 were found to cluster with previously reported subtype A isolates, whilst the remaining sample grouped within subtype B. Conclusions Subtype A was found to be the predominant FIV subtype present in Australia, although subtype B was also found. These results broaden our knowledge of the genetic diversity of FIV and the associated implications for preventative, diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Searching for cancer deaths in Australia: National Death Index vs Cancer Registries

OBJECTIVE: To compare the accuracy, costs and utility of using the National Death Index (NDI) and state-based cancer registries in determining the mortality status of a cohort of women diagnosed with ovarian cancer in the early 1990s. METHODS: As part of a large prognostic study, identifying information on 822 women diagnosed with ovarian cancer between 1990 and 1993, was simultaneously submitted to the NDI and three state-based cancer registries to identify deceased women as of June 30, 1999. This was compared to the gold standard of "definite deaths". A comparative evaluation was also made of the time and costs associated with the two methods. RESULTS: Of the 450 definite deaths in our cohort the NDI correctly identified 417 and all of the 372 women known to be alive (sensitivity 93%, specificity 100%). Inconsistencies in identifiers recorded in our cohort files, particularly names, were responsible for the majority of known deaths not matching with the NDI, and if eliminated would increase the sensitivity to 98%. The cancer registries correctly identified 431 of the 450 definite deaths (sensitivity 96%). The costs associated with the NDI search were the same as the cancer registry searches, but the cancer registries took two months longer to conduct the searches. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: This study indicates that the cancer registries are valuable, cost effective agencies for follow-up of mortality outcome in cancer cohorts, particularly where cohort members were residents of those states. For following large national cohorts the NDI provides additional information and flexibility when searching for deaths in Australia. This study also shows that women can be followed up for mortality with a high degree of accuracy using either service. Because each service makes a valuable contribution to the identification of deceased cancer subjects, both should be considered for optimal mortality follow-up in studies of cancer patients.

Recent changes in heart failure hospitalisations in Australia

Aim: To assess trends in admissions of patients with heart failure (HF) to all hospitals in Australia between 1996-1997 and 2003-2004. Methods and results: We carried out a retrospective analysis of the official population-based National Hospital Morbidity Data in Australia. Although the absolute number of separations with a principal diagnosis of HF remained stable, the age- and sex-standardized separation rate for HF recorded as principal diagnosis decreased from 2.0 per 1000 population in 1996-1997 to 1.6 per 1000 population in 2003-2004. The corresponding values for HF recorded in any diagnostic position were 7.7 and 4.7 per 1000 population. Men had higher in-hospital mortality than women (8.9% versus 8.1%,p < 0.001) and also a larger decrease in this measure over the study period (21.9% versus 14.4%). While the geometric mean length of stay for HF as principal diagnosis fell from 5.4 days in 1996-1997 to 4.9 days in 2003-2004, the proportion of bed-days related to such diagnoses relative to total bed days attributed to circulatory diseases increased from 12.8% to 13.7% (p < 0.001). Conclusion: There were no increase in number of admissions involving HF and standardized rates of hospital separations with HF fell in Australia between 1996 and 2004. The explanation for the observed declines in in-hospital case fatality and the separation rates should be sought in whole-of-community studies. (c) 2006 European Society of Cardiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

AUSLEM (AUStralian Land Erodibility Model): A tool for identifying wind erosion hazard in Australia

We present AUSLEM (AUStralian Land Erodibility Model), a land erodibility modelling system that utilizes a rule-set of surficial and climatic thresholds applied through a Geographic Information System (GIs) modelling framework to predict landscape susceptibility to wind erosion. AUSLEM is distinctive in that it quantitatively assesses landscape susceptibility to wind erosion at a 5 x 5 km. spatial resolution on a monthly time-step across Australia. The system was implemented for representative wet (1984), dry (1994), and average rainfall (1997) years with corresponding low, high and moderate dust storm day frequencies. Results demonstrate that AUSLEM can identify landscape erodibility, and provide an interpretation of the physical nature and distribution of erodible landscapes in Australia. Further, results offer an assessment of the dynamic tendencies of erodibility in space and time in response to the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and seasonal synoptic scale climate variability. A comparative analysis of AUSLEM output with independent national and international wind erosion, atmospheric aerosol and dust event records indicates a high level of model competency. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

General practice in Australia 2020: "robust and ready" or "rudderless and reeling"?

The future role and structure of Australian general practice remains uncertain, despite a decade of seemingly constant change following the release of the National Health Strategy papers. Some of the suggested change strategies (such as rural Practice Incentive Payments and practice accreditation) have been implemented; others (such as general practitioner involvement with area health authorities in delivering national goals and targets for communities) still await attention. An overarching vision for our health care system in 2020 and general practice's role within it are still to be clearly enunciated. Australia is at variance with other Western countries, such as the United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand, which have spent significant time refocusing their health systems to deal with an ageing population with an increased burden of chronic disease. Health bureaucrats and governments need to invest strategically in operational primary care now. This will require the active commitment of general practice's national bodies to articulate and actively promote a shared vision for Australian general practice.