Amino acid requirements of white seabream (Diplodus sargus) larvae: effects on growth and performance

Tese dout., Aquacultura, Universidade do Algarve, 2008

Biologia pesqueira e dinâmica populacional de Diplodus vulgaris (geoffr.) e Spondyliosoma cantharus (L.) (pisces, sparidae) na costa sudoeste de Portugal

As espécies da família Sparidae ocupam um lugar de destaque na actividade pesqueira da Costa Sudoeste de Portugal, sendo das principais subsidiárias da pesca artesanal nesta região. Com o presente trabalho pretendeu-se clarificar aspectos básicos da biologia de dois esparídeos, Diplodus vulgaris (safia) e Spondyliosoma cantharus (choupa), nas áreas da ecologia alimentar, reprodução, idade, crescimento e mortalidade; estimar os parâmetros de selectividade das artes de pesca mais importantes sobre estas espécies e avaliar preliminarmente o estado da pescaria destes dois esparídeos. Para atingir estes objectivos cumpriu-se um plano de amostragem de frequências de comprimento nas lotas de Sagres e Sines, de Julho de 1992 a Março de 1994; estudos laboratoriais com amostras recolhidas em Sagres de Dezembro de 1992 a Março de 1994 e um estudo de selectividade de aparelho de anzol e redes de emalhar realizado em 1997/98. Os hábitos alimentares foram estudados a partir da análise de conteúdos estomacais, utilizando-se 3 métodos de avaliação da composição da dieta, 5 índices combinados da bibliografia e 3 propostos. Da análise comparativa entre os vários índices concluiu-se que o índice de importância relativa (IRI) e o índice de alimentação ponderado (IPO2) serão os mais adequados para descrever as dietas destas espécies. Registaram-se elevados coeficientes de vacuidade, motivados em grande parte pela natureza da arte de pesca. A dieta de D. vulgaris é composta essencialmente por ofiurídeos, poliquetas, anfípodes e equinóides, enquanto que S. cantharus consome principalmente poliquetas, anfípodes e hidrozoários. As duas dietas são significativamente diferentes, principalmente pelo maior consumo de equinodermes no caso de D. vulgaris. A estrutura e dimensões da boca nestes esparídeos são distintas, podendo influenciar o seu comportamento trófico. À semelhança de grande parte dos esparídeos, D. vulgaris e S. cantharus são espécies bentívoras, que adoptam uma estratégia alimentar generalista, com fortes afinidades com o alimento disponível no meio. Da análise do ciclo reprodutivo verificou-se que as épocas de postura são extensas: D. vulgaris: Dezembro a Março com maior intensidade em Janeiro/Fevereiro; S. cantharus: Fevereiro a Abril, com máxima intensidade em Março. Não existiram diferenças significativas na proporção entre os sexos (M:F = 1.01) ao longo do ano e por tamanho em D. vulgaris, enquanto que em S. cantharus as fêmeas foram mais abundantes ao longo do ano (M:F=0.57) e nas classes de comprimento inferiores. Os tamanhos de 1ª maturação (L50%) para o conjunto dos sexos e indivíduos indeterminados foram de: D. vulgaris, 18.33 cm, não existindo diferenças significativas entre machos e fêmeas; S. cantharus, 20.10 cm, existindo diferenças significativas entre machos (22.41 cm, TL) e fêmeas (19.98 cm, TL). Os tamanhos de 1ª maturação estimados foram consideravelmente superiores aos tamanhos mínimo legais de desembarque (TML) em Portugal, para D. vulgaris (TML=15.0 cm) e ligeiramente inferiores no caso de S. cantharus (TML=23 cm). A fecundidade média absoluta (Fa) e a fecundidade relativa (Fr) foram de: D. vulgaris - Fa = 131127 ovos; Fr = 526 ovos/g; S. cantharus - Fa = 61396 ovos; Fr = 346 ovos/g. As relações entre a fecundidade absoluta e o comprimento total (TL) e o peso somático (SW) foram as seguintes: D. vulgaris: Fa = 0.1853TL4.1903; Fa = 57.715SW1.4067; S. cantharus: Fa = 436.27TL1.5747; Fa = 2979.7SW0.585. A estratégia reprodutiva destas espécies é caracterizada por hermafroditismo, rudimentar com eventual protândria parcial em D. vulgaris e protogínia em S. cantharus. A determinação da idade foi efectuada pela análise de estruturas duras, otólitos para D. vulgaris e otólitos e escamas para S. cantharus. As estimações do comprimento à idade ajustaram-se bem ao modelo de Von Bertalanffy. De entre os métodos de estimação dos parâmetros de crescimento, escolheu-se o ajuste não linear aplicado a todos os pares de comprimentos à idade, sendo esta corrigida pela data de captura. Para além do maior rigor desta análise, os resultados produzidos foram considerados os mais aproximados da realidade: D. vulgaris (otólitos): L=28.1 cm K=0.30 ano-1 e t0= -1.618 anos (validade: 12.5-30.5 cm; 1-10 anos); S. cantharus (escamas): L=35 cm, K=0.32 ano-1 e t0=-0.481 anos (validade: 14.3-33.5 cm; 1-9 anos). A análise de distribuição de frequências de comprimento, apresentou um L mais próximo da realidade: L=39.6 cm, K=0.32 ano-1 e t0=-0.481 anos (D. vulgaris); L=40.0 cm, K=0.24 ano-1 e t0=-0.646 anos (S. cantharus). As relações peso-comprimento de D. vulgaris e S. cantharus para a Costa Sudoeste foram do tipo potencial W=a Lb, sendo definidas pelos seguintes parâmetros: a=0.0223 e b= 2.895, r2=0.89 (D. vulgaris); a=0.0106 e b= 3.085, r2= 0.89 (S. cantharus). Os valores de mortalidade natural (M), estimados por métodos indirectos, para D. vulgaris e S. cantharus foram de 0.39 e 0.30 ano-1, respectivamente. O valor de M de esparídeos pode ser estimado preliminarmente mediante a utilização de uma regressão multilinear que integra as três variáveis (M, K e L): M = -0.162 + 1.714K + 0.00273L (r2=0.77). A análise das curvas de captura permitiu obter os seguintes valores de mortalidade total (Z): D. vulgaris: Z=0.642 (otólitos) e 0.727 ano-1 (frequências de comprimento); S. cantharus: Z=0.676 (escamas) e 0.576 ano-1 (frequências de comprimento). As artes de pesca mais importantes para D vulgaris e S. cantharus e para a região considerada são, por ordem de grandeza, o aparelho de anzol e redes de emalhar, e em menor escala a arte do cerco. Os esparídeos diversos e dentro destes a choupa, que deveria ser discriminada nas estatísticas oficiais, constituíram os únicos esparídeos que apresentaram uma evolução com tendência negativa de 1987 a 1998. A estrutura demográfica de desembarques de safia é caracterizada por cerca de 86.9 % indivíduos entre 20.5 a 27.5 cm (2 a 6 anos), enquanto que para a choupa, 85.0% dos indivíduos desembarcados estão compreendidos entre 21.5 e 27.5 cm (2 a 6 anos). No estudo de selectividade foram realizadas 40 pescas experimentais em que se testaram 4 tamanhos de anzol (nº11, 12, 13 e 15) e de malha (80, 70, 60 e 50mm). D. vulgaris e S. cantharus são das espécies mais abundantes na pescaria com aparelho de anzol, tendo uma representação inferior quer em termos relativos, quer absolutos nas capturas das redes de emalhar. Existiu um decréscimo geral das taxas de captura com o tamanho do anzol e uma maior eficiência para os tamanhos intermédios da malha nas redes de emalhar. Paralelamente, existiu para ambas as espécies uma sobreposição de comprimentos médios com o tamanho dos anzóis e uma separação clara de comprimentos médios de ambas as espécies com a malhagem. Adoptaram-se, com bom ajuste, uma curva de selectividade do tipo logística para o aparelho de anzol e normal para as redes de emalhar, para ambas as espécies. Atendendo a uma eventual revisão dos tamanhos mínimos legais de desembarque, em função dos tamanhos de primeira maturação e à estrutura das capturas, as malhas de 70 e 80mm são as mais adequadas na pescaria de D. vulgaris e S. cantharus, respectivamente. O anzol número 13 será o mais apropriado a D. vulgaris, dada a pouca praticabilidade do anzol 15. Em relação a S. cantharus o anzol nº 11 apresenta a menor proporção de indivíduos com tamanho ilegal, sendo então o mais indicado à pescaria desta espécie. Para o aparelho de anzol e de acordo com os modelos de rendimento por recruta a pescaria de safia processa-se de forma moderada, a níveis inferiores a uma taxa de exploração máxima (Emax) suportável pelo "stock". A pescaria de choupa apresenta indícios de uma exploração intensa, próxima dos valores máximos comportados pelo "stock". Uma alteração nos valores actuais da taxa de exploração e/ou de comprimento de 1ª captura terá de ter em consideração o carácter multiespecifico desta pescaria. Visando a gestão destes recursos pesqueiros, dever-se-á controlar principalmente o nível do esforço de pesca praticado e rever os tamanhos mínimos de desembarque, de modo a evitar que esta pescaria entre numa fase de sobreexploração. O estabelecimento de reservas marinhas e de recifes artificiais poderá ser um contributo para uma exploração pesqueira sustentada e para a conservação da biodiversidade.

Allozyme and mtDNA variation of white seabream Diplodus sargus populations in a transition area between western and eastern Mediterranean basins (Siculo-Tunisian Strait)

To investigate the possible influence of the Siculo-Tunisian Strait on the genetic structure of white seabream Diplodus sargus, 13 polymorphic allozyme loci and a fragment of the cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA were analysed. Allozyme data indicated a moderate but significant differentiation between some north-eastern (Bizerta, Ghar El Melh Lagoon and Mahdia) and southern (Gabes Gulf and El Biban Lagoon) samples. This heterogeneity was also highlighted after removing PGM* and PGI-1* loci which may be under selection. These results can be explained by the chaotic genetic patchiness hypothesis. In contrast, the mtDNA data indicated genetic homogeneity among localities showing the absence of structure in white seabream populations across the Siculo-Tunisian Strait. Historical demography of this species suggests that it has undergone a recent population expansion as a consequence of a bottleneck event during the Pleistocene glaciations.

Phylogeographical history of the white seabream Diplodus sargus (Sparidae): Implications for insularity

Partial sequences of the mitochondrial control region and its comparison with previously published cytochrome b (cyt-b) and microsatellite data were used to investigate the influence of island isolation and connectivity on white seabream genetic structure. To achieve this, a total of 188 individuals from four island localities (Castellamare and Mallorca, Mediterranean Sea; Azores and Canary Islands, Atlantic Ocean) and five coastal localities (Banyuls, Murcia and Tunisia, Mediterranean Sea; Galicia and Faro, Atlantic Ocean) were analysed. Results showed high haplotype diversity and low to moderate nucleotide diversity in all populations (except for the Canary Islands). This pattern of genetic diversity is attributed to a recent population expansion which is corroborated by other results such as cyt-b network and demographic analyses. Low differentiation among Mediterranean/Atlantic and coastal/island groups was shown by the AMOVA and FST values, although a weak phylogeographic break was detected using cyt-b data. However, we found a clear and significant island/ distance effect with regard to the Azores islands. Significant genetic differentiation has been detected between the Azores islands and all other populations. The large geographical distance between the European continental slope and the Azores islands is a barrier to gene flow within this region and historic events such as glaciation could also explain this genetic differentiation.

In two waters: contemporary evolution of lagoonal and marine white seabream (Diplodus sargus) populations

Brackish water ecosystems are often exposed to wide variations in environmental variables, including temperature and salinity, which may cause strong selective pressures on organisms modifying the genetic patterns of species. The aim of this work was to test whether there is a ‘divergence-with-gene flow’ in coastal lagoon populations of white seabream (Diplodus sargus) (Ria Formosa, S Portugal and Mar Menor, SE Spain) respect to four marine populations, by using partial sequences of cyt b mitochondrial gene and information from nine microsatellite loci. Genetic diversity was highest in both coastal lagoons (Mar Menor and Ria Formosa) considering mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Although some of FST population pairwise comparisons were not significant, analyses of molecular variance (AMOVAs) detected differences between groups (coastal lagoon and marine) close to significance. Also, only two haplotypes (Cytb-17 and Cytb-18) were detected in both coastal lagoon sampling sites and these localities (Mar Menor and Ria Formosa) showed the highest number of singletons, some of them with a high number of mutations, as has been already described for other Mar Menor populations (Pomatochistus marmoratus and Holothuria polii). Also, several tests detected significant positive and balancing selection considering mtDNA and microsatellite data. These data support the hypothesis of selection as one of the drivers of the genetic differences found between coastal lagoon and marine populations. The life strategy adopted by Diplodus sargus in coastal lagoons allows it to decrease its mortality rate and improve the heritability of its genes. Also, the increase time spent in coastal lagoons with different temperatures and salinities favours the fitness selection and the maintenance of exclusive haplotypes and genotypes in coastal lagoon inhabitants favouring the ‘divergence-with-gene-flow’.

Connectivity patterns inferred from the genetic structure of white seabream (Diplodus sargus L.)

Themarine environment seems, at first sight, to be a homogeneousmediumlacking barriers to species dispersal. Nevertheless, populations of marine species show varying levels of gene flow and population differentiation, so barriers to gene flow can often be detected. Weaimto elucidate the role of oceanographical factors ingenerating connectivity among populations shaping the phylogeographical patterns in the marine realm, which is not only a topic of considerable interest for understanding the evolution ofmarine biodiversity but also formanagement and conservation of marine life. For this proposal,we investigate the genetic structure and connectivity between continental and insular populations ofwhite seabreamin North East Atlantic (NEA) and Mediterranean Sea (MS) aswell as the influence of historical and contemporary factors in this scenario using mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and nuclear (a set of 9 microsatellite) molecular markers. Azores population appeared genetically differentiated in a single cluster using Structure analysis. This result was corroborated by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Monmonier algorithm which suggested a boundary to gene flow, isolating this locality. Azorean population also shows the highest significant values of FST and genetic distances for both molecular markers (microsatellites and mtDNA). We suggest that the breakdown of effective genetic exchange between Azores and the others' samples could be explained simultaneously by hydrographic (deep water) and hydrodynamic (isolating current regimes) factors acting as barriers to the free dispersal of white seabream(adults and larvae) and by historical factors which could be favoured for the survival of Azorean white seabream population at the last glaciation. Mediterranean islands show similar genetic diversity to the neighbouring continental samples and nonsignificant genetic differences. Proximity to continental coasts and the current system could promote an optimal larval dispersion among Mediterranean islands (Mallorca and Castellamare) and coasts with high gene flow.

Changes in movements of white seabream (Diplodus sargus) during the reproductive season

It has been hypothesized, based on anecdotal information and reports, that adult white seabream migrate and aggregate during spawning. Because most of the past telemetric studies on this ecologically and commercially important species were short in duration and did not cover the reproductive season, we set out to use longer-term passive acoustic telemetry to test this hypothesis. We found that white seabream expands its home range and increases the frequency of forays during the reproductive season, but found no obvious signs of spawning aggregations. Our results thus provide evidence for short-range behavioral shifts in fish space use related to reproductive activity, and support the notion that small MPAs may be effective in managing reef fish populations by effectively protecting their spawning biomass. (c) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Comparative Behavior of Wild and Hatchery Reared White Sea Bream (Diplodus sargus) Released on Artificial Reefs Off the Algarve (Southern Portugal)

Three hatchery produced and reared (HPR) and five wild white sea bream (Diplodus sargus) were double tagged with Vemco V8SC-2L acoustic transmitters and Floy Tag T-bar anchor tags, and released on artificial reefs located near a natural reef off the southern coast of Portugal. Passive telemetry was used to monitor movements of the white sea bream over a nine week period from April to June 2007. Differences in behavior at release, habitat association (artificial vs. natural reef), and in daily movements were registered. Wild fish moved from one habitat to the other with increased preference for the artificial habitat during the day, whereas HPR fish showed no site fidelity or consistent daily movement pattern and left the release site soon after release. Comparison of Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) showed a higher area usage by wild fish. This experiment shows that these artificial reefs are used on a daily basis by wild white sea bream but apparently are not optimal release locations for hatchery produced white sea bream.

Early reserve effects linked to small home ranges of a commercial fish, Diplodus sargus, Sparidae

Studies that combine both the ecological responses of marine species and protection measures with movement patterns and habitat use are of major importance in order to better understand the performance of marine protected areas (MPA) and how species respond to their implementation. However, few studies have assessed MPA performance by relating local individual movement patterns and the observed reserve effects. In this study, we combined acoustic telemetry with abundance estimates to study the early effects of a recently established small coastal MPA on the local populations of white seabream. The results show that even small, recently established coastal MPAs can increase the abundance and biomass of commercial fish species, provided that target species have small home ranges and exhibit high site fidelity.

Feeding habits of the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) from the Ria Formosa (southern Portugal) as compared to the black seabream (Spondyliosoma cantharus) and the annular seabream (Diplodus annularis)

The feeding habits of Sparus aurata L., Diplodus annularis L. and Spondyliosoma cantharus L. in the Ria Formosa (southern Portugal) lagoon system were studied using three simple methods (frequency of occurrence, numeric percentage and percentage weight) and a composite index [index of relative importance (IRI)]. The Ivlev index was used to evaluate diet selectivity, while the Schoener overlap index was used to compare diets, and diet diversity was characterized by the Simpson index. The diets of the three species consist of a wide variety of food organisms, nevertheless S. aurata seems to be the most specialized. No significant dietary overlap was found, with S. aurata preferentially selecting gastropods and bivalves. while S. cantharus preferentially selected a wide variety of crustaceans and D. sargus a wider array, including crustaceans, gastropods and bivalves.

Feeding habits of the two-banded sea bream (Diplodus vulgaris) and the black sea bream (Spondyliosoma gantharus) (Sparidae) from the south-west coast of Portugal

The stomach contents of Diplodus vulgaris and Spondyliosoma cantharus were: analysed using three simple methods (numeric, gravimetric and frequency of occurrence) and a composite index (I.R.I - Index of Relative Importance). To compare the species, the Schoener index was used. The diet of D. vulgaris consisted mainly of ophiuroids, polychaetes, amphipods and echinoids, while polychaetes, amphipods and hydrozoans dominated in the case of S. cantharus. There were some size-related differences in S. cantharus feeding. Diet overlap was relatively slight, with significant differences in feeding between the two species, notably in terms of greater consumption of echinoderms by D. vulgaris and hydrozoans by S. cantharus. As is the case for the majority of sea breams, D. vulgaris and S. cantharus are characterised by a diverse diet in terms of prey reflecting available prey items in their environment.

Home range, residency and movements of Diplodus sargus and Diplodus vulgaris in a coastal lagoon: Connectivity between nursery and adult habitats

Acoustic telemetry and standard tag-recapture were used to determine the home range and residency of juveniles and sub-adults of Diplodus sargus and Diplodus vulgaris in the Ria Formosa (Portugal) coastal lagoon. Maximum time between recaptures for the standard tag-recapture method was 128 days for D. sargus and 30 days for D. vulgaris. The majority of the fish were recaptured in the vicinity of the tagging location. Fish tagged with acoustic transmitters had a maximum period of time between first and last detections of 62 days for D. sargus and 260 days for D. vulgaris. Minimum convex polygons areas ranged between 148 024 m(2) and 525 930 m(2) for D. sargus and between 23 786 m(2) and 42134 m(2) for D. vulgaris. Both species presented a high residency index between first and last detections. Two D. sargus tagged with acoustic tags were recaptured by fishermen outside the coastal lagoon at distances of 12 km and 90 km from the tagging position, providing evidence that this species leaves the Ria Formosa during the winter time for the adjacent coastal waters. The results of this study reinforce the importance of Ria Formosa as a nursery for D. sargus and D. vulgaris in the south coast of Portugal. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Insights into population structure of Diplodus vulgaris along the SW Portuguese coast from otolith elemental signatures

The common two-banded sea bream (Diplodus vulgaris) is an important fish in the marine ecosystems of the NW Atlantic and Mediterranean. In southern Portugal it is a major fishery resource being targeted mainly by the artisanal fleets. Although there is some knowledge of the age, growth and reproductive biology of the species, information about its population structure is scarce and somewhat limited to the Mediterranean Sea. In this study the otolith elemental signatures of 90 specimens of D. vulgaris of the same age group (2+ years) and cohort collected from the important fishery regions of SW Portugal (Sesimbra, Sagres and Faro) have been analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Two different methodologies have been applied: solution based analysis of the whole otoliths; representative of the entire life-history prior to capture, and laser ablation analysis of otolith cores; representative of the larval and early post-settlement phase. Whole otolith comparisons utilised Sr/Ca, Ba/Ca, Mn/Ca, Li/Ca and Ni/Ca to demonstrate regional population structure. Classification accuracy rates from linear discriminant function analyses (LDFA) of whole otolith chemistry data were high for each region; Faro - 93%, Sagres - 90% and Sesimbra - 80%. Comparison of the otolith core chemistry utilised Sr/Ca, Ba/Ca, Mn/Ca and Mg/Ca and Zn/Ca. LDFA for the otolith core chemistry also achieved accurate classification for samples from Sesimbra (73%), but there was high overlap of otolith chemistry between samples from Faro and Sagres (47 and 43% classification accuracy respectively). The whole otolith results suggest that D. vulgaris are resident in the regional fishing areas during the juvenile phase. Both the core and whole otolith chemistry data supported separation of the Sesimbra fishery region from the more southern and closely associated Faro and Sagres regions for management purposes. However, while the whole otolith data indicated that the populations at Faro and Sagres likely remained separated in the juvenile stage, the otolith core chemistry data was inconclusive as to whether recruitment to these two areas was derived, or not, from different spawning areas.

Residency, movements and habitat use of adult white seabream (Diplodus sargus) between natural and artificial reefs

Artificial reefs are used as management tools for coastal fisheries and ecosystems and the knowledge of habitat use and fish movements around them is necessary to understand their performance and improve their design and location. In this study wild specimens of Diplodus sargus were tagged with acoustic tags and their movements were tracked using passive acoustic telemetry. The monitored area enclosed a natural rocky reef, an adjacent artificial reef (AR) and shallower sandy bottoms. Most of the fish were close to full time residents in the monitored area. Results revealed that D. sargus use the natural reef areas on a more frequent basis than the AR. However, excursions to the adjacent AR and sandy bottoms were frequently detected, essentially during daytime. The use of acoustic telemetry allowed a better understanding of the use of artificial reef structures and its adjacent areas by wild D. sargus providing information that is helpful towards the improvement of AR design and location. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.