Ecogeography of roe deer: relation with other ungulates in sympatry

Understanding the spatial distribution of organisms is a central topic in ecology. The European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) population is in Portugal and Norway at the southwestern and northern edge of its distribution, respectively. Understanding the factors that act on these populations enlightens both local aspects concerning their conservation and wider scale aspects of the species bioclimatic envelope, which is crucial for being better able to predict the impacts of environmental change. The main aim of this thesis was to evaluate roe deer distribution in Portugal and Norway, two countries with contrasting landscapes, seasonality and with different anthropogenic pressure. The interspecific relationship with sympatric ungulates was also analysed. By using pellet group counts, we investigated habitat use of roe deer, identifying the major environmental descriptors, to understand the importance of forest structure, vegetation characteristics, landscape structure and human disturbance on their distribution. The analyses were based on presence – absence data and were carried out at two spatial scales. The results showed that habitat use of roe deer was different across countries. In Portugal, at the local scale, roe deer distribution was positively associated with high density of shrubs, especially heather and brambles, while the presence of red deer had a negative effect on their distribution. At a broad scale, roe deer was negatively associated with spatial heterogeneity, namely mean shape index and made less use of areas close to agricultural fields. In Norway, at the local scale, roe deer made more use of areas with high cover of deciduous trees and patches containing juniper and Vaccinium sp.. At a broad scale, roe deer use patches near edges between fields and forest. In both countries, roe deer make use of areas further away from roads. While in Norway roe deer in both summer and winter are always close to houses, in Portugal they are either far (summer) or indifferent (winter). Anthropogenic disturbance is better tolerated in Norway, where the importance of the critical season seems to be higher. Human disturbance may contribute to roe deer habitat loss in Portugal, while roe deer are able to persist close to humans in managed landscapes in Norway. In fact, some of the differences observed could be more due to the indirect impacts of human exploitation (e.g. presence of free-ranging dogs and hunting regulation) rather than the actual human presence or land-use per se. I conclude that the methodology and tools developed here are readily expandable to address similar questions in different contexts. Wildlife management would benefit greatly from a more holistic/integrative approach and that should include human aspects, as human disturbance is expected to continue increasing.

Ecology and physical condition of red deer in the Iberian Peninsula: implications for management

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is currently one of the most widespread and abundant wild ungulates in the Iberian Peninsula and is extremely important both ecologically, as a key species for the functioning of the ecosystems, and economically, as a major game species. In Iberia, red deer populations are subjected to different management systems that may affect the physical condition of the individuals, with further consequences for population dynamics. Studies investigating the effects of management practices and environmental conditions on the performance of red deer are still rare regarding Mediterranean ecosystems. Much of the knowledge concerning the ecology of red deer and the impact of management on its physical condition is based on studies conducted in northern and central regions of Europe, where climatological features and management practices differ from those observed in the Mediterranean areas of Iberia. Studies on a biogeographical scale can provide important insights into the relationships between species and a particular environment and contribute to the development of more targeted and appropriate management practices. The optimisation of sampling procedures and the fine-tuning of pre-existing analytical techniques are also fundamental to a more cost-effective monitoring and, therefore, are of enormous value to wildlife managers. In this context, the main aims of this thesis were: 1) to optimise the procedures used to assess the physical condition of red deer; and 2) to identify relevant management and environmental factors affecting the nutritional condition and stress physiology of red deer in the Mediterranean ecosystems of Iberia, as well as any potential interactions between those factors. Two studies with a methodological focus, presented in the first part of the thesis, demonstrated that the physical condition of red deer can be evaluated more simply, using more cost- and time-effective procedures than those traditionally used: i) it was shown that only one kidney and its associated fat is enough to assess nutritional condition in red deer; and ii) the feasibility of using near infrared spectroscopy to predict the concentrations of stress hormone metabolites was demonstrated using faeces of red deer for the first time. Subsequently, two large-scale observational studies, conducted in representative red deer populations found in Mediterranean Iberia, highlighted the importance of considering seasonal environmental variations and variables related to hunting management practices to better understand the nutritional and physiological ecology of red deer. High population densities had adverse effects on the nutritional condition of the deer and were associated with increased stress levels in natural populations without supplementary feeding. Massive hunting events involving the use of hounds were also identified as a potential source of chronic stress in red deer. The research presented in this thesis has clear implications regarding the management and monitoring of red deer populations in Mediterranean environments and is intended to help wildlife managers to implement more effective monitoring programmes and sustainable management practices.