Evolution and functional relevance of Ataxin-3 paralogues

O gene ataxin-3 (ATXN3; 14q32.1) codifica uma proteína expressa ubiquamente, envolvida na via ubiquitina-proteassoma e na repressão da transcrição. Grande relevância tem sido dada ao gene ATXN3 após a identificação de uma expansão (CAG)n na sua região codificante, responsável pela ataxia mais comum em todo o mundo, SCA3 ou doença de Machado-Joseph (DMJ). A DMJ é uma doença neurodegenerativa, autossómica dominante, de início tardio. O tamanho do alelo expandido explica apenas uma parte do pleomorfismo da doença, evidenciando a importância do estudo de outros modificadores. Em doenças de poliglutaminas (poliQ), a toxicidade é causada por um ganho de função da proteína expandida; no entanto, a proteína normal parece ser, também, um dos agentes modificadores da patogénese. O gene ATXN3 possui dois parálogos humanos gerados por retrotransposição: ataxin-3 like (ATXN3L) no cromossoma X, e LOC100132280, ainda não caracterizado, no cromossoma 8. Estudos in vitro evidenciaram a capacidade da ATXN3L para clivar cadeias de ubiquitina, sendo o seu domínio proteolítico mais eficiente do que o domínio da ATXN3 parental. O objetivo deste estudo foi explorar a origem e a evolução das retrocópias ATXN3L e LOC100132280 (aqui denominadas ATXN3L1 e ATXN3L2), assim como testar a relevância funcional de ambas através de abordagens evolutivas e funcionais. Deste modo, para estudar a divergência evolutiva dos páralogos do gene ATXN3: 1) analisaram-se as suas filogenias e estimou-se a data de origem dos eventos de retrotransposição; 2) avaliaram-se as pressões seletivas a que têm sido sujeitos os três parálogos, ao longo da evolução dos primatas; e 3) explorou-se a evolução das repetições CAG, localizadas em três contextos genómicos diferentes, provavelmente sujeitos a diferentes pressões seletivas. Finalmente, para o retrogene que conserva uma open reading frame (ORF) intacta, ATXN3L1, analisou-se, in silico, a conservação dos locais e domínios proteicos da putativa proteína. Ademais, para este retrogene, foi estudado o padrão de expressão de mRNA, através da realização de PCR de Transcriptase Reversa, em 16 tecidos humanos. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que dois eventos independentes de retrotransposição estiveram na origem dos retrogenes ATXN3L1 e ATXN3L2, tendo o primeiro ocorrido há cerca de 63 milhões de anos (Ma) e o segundo após a divisão Platirrínios-Catarrínios, há cerca de 35 Ma. Adicionalmente, outras retrocópias foram encontradas em primatas e outros mamíferos, correspondendo, no entanto, a eventos mais recentes e independentes de retrotransposição. A abordagem evolutiva mostrou a existência de algumas constrições selectivas associadas à evolução do gene ATXN3L1, à semelhança do que acontece com ATXN3. Por outro lado, ATXN3L2 adquiriu codões stop prematuros que, muito provavelmente, o tornaram num pseudogene processado. Os resultados da análise de expressão mostraram que o gene ATXN3L1 é transcrito, pelo menos, em testículo humano; no entanto, a optimização final da amplificação específica dos transcriptos ATXN3L1 permitirá confirmar se a expressão se estende a outros tecidos. Relativamente ao mecanismo de mutação inerente à repetição CAG, os dois parálogos mostraram diferentes padrões de evolução: a retrocópia ATXN3L1 é altamente interrompida e pouco polimórfica, enquanto a ATXN3L2 apresenta tratos puros de (CAG)n em algumas espécies e tratos hexanucleotídicos de CGGCAG no homem e no chimpanzé. A recente aquisição da repetição CGGCAG pode ter resultado de uma mutação inicial de CAG para CGG, seguida de instabilidade que proporcionou a expansão dos hexanucleótidos.Estudos futuros poderão ser realizados no sentido de confirmar o padrão de expressão do gene ATXN3L1 e de detetar proteína endógena in vivo. Adicionalmente, a caracterização da proteina ataxina-3 like 1 e dos seus interatores moleculares poderá povidenciar informação acerca da sua relevância no estado normal e patológico.

The evolving profile, role and relevance of the medical director in a pharmaceutical company

Over the last years, operations in Pharmaceutical Companies have become more complex, trying to adapt to new demands of the market environment. Overall, the observed change of paradigm requires adapting, mainly by the setting of new priorities, diversification of investments, cost containment strategies, exploring new markets and developping new sets of skills. In this context, new functions have been created, the relevance of some has diminished, and the importance of others has arisen. Amongst these, the medical structure within a Pharmaceutical Company, increased to meet demands, with companies adopting different models to respond to these needs, and becoming a pillar to the business. Assuming the leading role within a medical department, the medical director function often lies in the shadow. It is a key function within Pharma Industry, either on a country or on a Global basis. It has evolved and changed in the past years to meet the constant demands of a changing environment. The Medical Director is a highly skilled and differeniated professional who provides medical and scientific governance within a Pharmaceutical company, since early stages of drug development and up to loss of exclusivity, not only but also by leading a team of other physicians, pharmacists or life scientists whose functions comprise specificities that the medical director needs to understand, provide input to, oversee and lead. As the organization of Pharmaceutical Companies tends to be different, in accordance to values, culture, markets and strategies, the scope of activities of a Medical Director can be broader or may be limited, depending on size of the organization and governance model, but they must fulfil a large set of requirements in order to leverage impact on internal and internal customers. Key technical competencies for medical directors such as an MD degree, a strong clinical foundation, knowledge of drug development, project and team management experience and written and verbal skills are relatively easy to define, but underlying behavioural competencies are more difficult to ascertain, and these are more often the true predictors of success in the role. Beyond seamless proficiency in technical skills, at this level interpersonal skills become far more important, as they are the driver and the distinctive factor between a good and an excelent medical director. And this has impact in the business and in the people doing it.

Single and joint effects of natural and chemical stressors to the terrestrial isopod Porcellionides pruinosus

Environmental contamination and climate changes constitute two of the most serious problems affecting soil ecosystems in agricultural fields. Agriculture is nowadays a highly optimized process that strongly relies on the application of multiple pesticides to reduce losses and increase yield production. Although constituting, per se, a serious problem to soil biota, pesticide mixtures can assume an even higher relevance in a context of unfavourable environmental conditions. Surprisingly, frameworks currently established for environmental risk assessments keep not considering environmental stressors, such as temperature, soil moisture or UV radiation, as factors liable to influence the susceptibility of organisms to pesticides, or pesticide mixtures, which is raising increasing apprehension regarding their adequacy to actually estimate the risks posed by these compounds to the environment. Albeit the higher attention received on the last few years, the influence of environmental stressors on the behaviour and toxicity of chemical mixtures remains still poorly understood. Aiming to contribute for this discussion, the main goal of the present thesis was to evaluate the single and joint effects of natural stressors and pesticides to the terrestrial isopod Porcellionides pruinosus. The first approach consisted on evaluating the effects of several abiotic factors (temperature, soil moisture and UV radiation) on the performance of P. pruinosus using several endpoints: survival, feeding parameters, locomotor activity and avoidance behaviour. Results showed that these stressors might indeed affect P. pruinosus at relevant environmental conditions, thus suggesting the relevance of their consideration in ecotoxicological assays. At next, a multiple biomarker approach was used to have a closer insight into the pathways of damage of UV radiation and a broad spectrum of processes showed to be involved (i.e. oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, energy). Furthermore, UV effects showed to vary with the environment medium and growth-stage. A similar biomarker approach was employed to assess the single and joint effects of the pesticides chlorpyrifos and mancozeb to P. pruinosus. Energy-related biomarkers showed to be the most differentiating parameters since age-classes seemed to respond differently to contamination stress and to have different metabolic costs associated. Finally, the influence of temperature and soil moisture on the toxicity of pesticide mixtures was evaluated using survival and feeding parameters as endpoints. Pesticide-induced mortality was found to be oppositely affected by temperature, either in single or mixture treatments. Whereas chlorpyrifos acute toxicity was raised under higher temperatures the toxicity of mancozeb was more prominent at lower temperatures. By the opposite, soil moisture showed no effects on the pesticide-induced mortality of isopods. Contrary to survival, both temperature and soil moisture showed to interact with pesticides to influence isopods’ feeding parameters. Nonetheless, was however the most common pattern. In brief, findings reported on this thesis demonstrated why the negligence of natural stressors, or multiple stressors in general, is not a good solution for risk assessment frameworks.