Assessing the combined effect of land management and wildfire on runoff and soil erosion in north central Portugal

Strong and sometimes extreme responses in runoff and soil erosion following wildfires have been reported worldwide. However, in the case of North-Central Portugal, little research had been carried out regarding the hydrologic and erosive impacts of several land management activities in recently burnt areas (such as ground preparation, post-fire logging or post-fire mitigation treatments). This study aims to assess post-fire runoff and soil erosion response on Eucalypt and Maritime pine plantations during the first, second and third years following wildfires. The effect of several pre-fire ground preparation operations (ploughed down-slope, contour ploughed and inclined terraces), post-fire logging activities (on both the eucalypt and pine plantations), as well as the application of hydromulch (a post-fire emergency treatment) on overland flow and soil erosion were compared to burnt but undisturbed and untreated areas. The intensive monitoring of runoff, soil erosion and selected soil properties served to determine the main factors involved in post-fire runoff and soil erosion and their spatial and temporal variation. Soil water repellency deserved special attention, due to its supposed important role for overland flow generation. Repeated rainfall simulation experiments (RSE’s), micro-scale runoff plots and bounded sediment fences were carried out and/or installed immediately after the wildfire on seven burnt slopes. Micro-scale runoff plots results under natural rainfall conditions were also compared to the RSE’s results, which was useful for assessing the representativeness of the data obtained with artificial rainfall. The results showed comparable runoff coefficient (20-60%) but lower sediment losses (125-1000 g m-2) than prior studies in Portugal, but especially outside Portugal. Lower sediment losses were related with the historic intensive land use in the area. In evaluating these losses, however, the shallowness and stoniness of the soils, as well as the high organic matter fraction of the eroded sediments (50%) must not be overlooked. Sediment limited erosion was measured in all the ploughed sites, probably due to the time since ploughing (several years). The disturbance of the soil surface cover due to post-fire logging and wood extraction substantially increased sediment losses at both the pine and eucalypt sites. Hydromulch effectiveness in reducing the runoff (70%) and sediment losses (83%) was attributed to the protective high coverage provided by hydromulch. The hydromulch significantly affected the soil cover and other soil properties and these changes also reduced the soil erosion risk. The rainfall amount was the main factor explaining the variance in runoff. However, a shift from rainfall amount to rainfall intensity was detected when either the surface cover or the infiltration capacity (hydrophilic conditions) increased. Sediment losses were controlled by rainfall intensity and surface cover. The role of soil water repellency on runoff generation was not consistent; the overall repellency levels alone were not enough to assess its hydrological impact. Soil water repellency explained runoff generation in the specific-sites model better than in the overall model. Additionally, soil moisture content was a better predictor for soil water repellency than antecedent rainfall. The natural rainfall results confirmed that RSE’s were able to capture the specific sediment losses and its organic matter content as well as the differences between the ploughed and unploughed sites. Repeated RSE’s also captured the seasonal variations in runoff and sediment losses attributed to soil water repellency. These results have implications for post-fire soil erosion modelling and soil conservation practices in the region, or areas with the same land use, climate and soil characteristics. The measured sediment loss, as well as the increasing frequency of ploughing in recently burnt and unburnt eucalypt stands, suggests ploughing is not an effective as a soil conservation measure. Logging activities with less impact are recommended in order to maintain the forest litter protecting the soil surface. Due to its high effectiveness in reducing runoff and soil erosion, hydromulch is recommended for highly sensitive and vulnerable areas.

Soil erosion mitigation following forest wildfires

This study aims to measure the effectiveness of four post-fire emergency techniques for reducing overland flow and soil erosion on the central-Portugal typical forest. The selection and development of these techniques was based on the review of the scientific background, but specially after checking throughout field rainfall simulation experiments which factors were the key for runoff and soil erosion on the specific case of high repellent soils. The forest residue mulch, a new treatment never tested before, was highly effective in reducing runoff and soil erosion in recently burnt eucalypt forest. The logging slash mulch had no obvious effect, but it was attributed to the small amounts of runoff and sediments that the untreated plots produced due to the extensive needle cast following a low severity fire. The hydromulch, a mixture of water, organic fibres, seeds, nutrients and a surfactant used in cutted slopes rehabilitation was also highly successful and was specially indicated for especially sensible areas. The utilization of polyacrylamides, a chemical agent with good performance in agricultural erosion, was not successful in post-fire runoff and soil erosion control, once that did not alter the most important key factor for soil erosion: the ground cover. The development of a new fibre optic turbidity sensor was a successful development on the soil erosion determination methodology, and its patent is being processed in the mean time.

Understanding and modelling hydrological and soil erosion processes in burnt forest catchments

Forest fires implications in overland flow and soil erosion have been researched for several years. Therefore, is widely known that fires enhance hydrological and geomorphological activity worldwide as also in Mediterranean areas. Soil burn severity has been widely used to describe the impacts of fire on soils, and has being recognized as a decisive factor controlling post-fire erosion rates. However, there is no unique definition of the term and the relationship between soil burn severity and post-fire hydrological and erosion response has not yet been fully established. Few studies have assessed post-fire erosion over multiple years, and the authors are aware of none which assess runoff. Small amount of studies concerning pre-fire management practices were also found. In the case of soil erosion models, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and the revised Morgan–Morgan–Finney (MMF) are well-known models, but not much information is available as regards their suitability in predicting post-fire soil erosion in forest soils. The lack of information is even more pronounced as regards post-fire rehabilitation treatments. The aim of the thesis was to perform an extensive research under the post fire hydrologic and erosive response subject. By understanding the effect of burn severity in ecosystems and its implications regarding post fire hydrological and erosive responses worldwide. Test the effect of different pre-fire land management practices (unplowed, downslope plowed and contour plowed) and time-since-fire, in the post fire hydrological and erosive response, between the two most common land uses in Portugal (pine and eucalypt). Assess the performance of two widely-known erosion models (RUSLE and Revised MMF), to predict soil erosion rates during first year following two wildfires of distinctive burn severity. Furthermore, to apply these two models considering different post-fire rehabilitation treatments in an area severely affected by fire. Improve model estimations of post-fire runoff and erosion rates in two different land uses (pine and eucalypt) using the revised MMF. To assess these improvements by comparing estimations and measurements of runoff and erosion, in two recently burned sites, as also with their post fire rehabilitation treatments. Model modifications involved: (1) focusing on intra-annual changes in parameters to incorporate seasonal differences in runoff and erosion; and (2) inclusion of soil water repellency in runoff predictions. Additionally, validate these improvements with the application of the model to other pine and eucalypt sites in Central Portugal. The review and meta-analysis showed that fire occurrence had a significant effect on the hydrological and erosive response. However, this effect was only significantly higher with increasing soil burn severity for inter-rill erosion, and not for runoff. This study furthermore highlighted the incoherencies between existing burn severity classifications, and proposed an unambiguous classification. In the case of the erosion plots with natural rainfall, land use factor affected annual runoff while land management affected both annual runoff and erosion amounts significantly. Time-since-fire had an important effect in erosion amounts among unplowed sites, while for eucalypt sites time affected both annual runoff and erosion amounts. At all studied sites runoff coefficients increase over the four years of monitoring. In the other hand, sediment concentration in the runoff, recorded a decrease during the same period. Reasons for divergence from the classic post-fire recovery model were also explored. Short fire recurrence intervals and forest management practices are viewed as the main reasons for the observed severe and continuing soil degradation. The revised MMF model presented reasonable accuracy in the predictions while the RUSLE clearly overestimated the observed erosion rates. After improvements: the revised model was able to predict first-year post-fire plot-scale runoff and erosion rates for both forest types, these predictions were improved both by the seasonal changes in the model parameters; and by considering the effect of soil water repellency on the runoff, individual seasonal predictions were considered accurate, and the inclusion of the soil water repellency in the model also improved the model at this base. The revised MMF model proved capable of providing a simple set of criteria for management decisions about runoff and erosion mitigation measures in burned areas. The erosion predictions at the validation sites attested both to the robustness of the model and of the calibration parameters, suggesting a potential wider application.

Environmental impacts of freshwater use and suspended solids in life cycle assessment

Perturbation of natural ecosystems, namely by increasing freshwater use and its degradative use, as well as topsoil erosion by water of land-use production systems, have been emerging as topics of high environmental concern. Freshwater use has become a focus of attention in the last few years for all stakeholders involved in the production of goods, mainly agro-industrial and forest-based products, which are freshwater-intensive consumers, requiring large inputs of green and blue water. This thesis presents a global review on the available Water Footprint Assessment and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)-based methods for measuring and assessing the environmental relevance of freshwater resources use, based on a life cycle perspective. Using some of the available midpoint LCA-based methods, the freshwater use-related impacts of a Portuguese wine (white ‘vinho verde’) were assessed. However, the relevance of environmental green water has been neglected because of the absence of a comprehensive impact assessment method associated with green water flows. To overcome this constraint, this thesis helps to improve and enhance the LCA-based methods by providing a midpoint and spatially explicit Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method for assessing impacts on terrestrial green water flow and addressing reductions in surface blue water production caused by reductions in surface runoff due to land-use production systems. The applicability of the proposed method is illustrated by a case study on Eucalyptus globulus conducted in Portugal, as the growth of short rotation forestry is largely dependent on local precipitation. Topsoil erosion by water has been characterised as one of the most upsetting problems for rivers. Because of this, this thesis also focuses on the ecosystem impacts caused by suspended solids (SS) from topsoil erosion that reach freshwater systems. A framework to conduct a spatially distributed SS delivery to freshwater streams and a fate and effect LCIA method to derive site-specific characterisation factors (CFs) for endpoint damage on aquatic ecosystem diversity, namely on algae, macrophyte, and macroinvertebrates organisms, were developed. The applicability of this framework, combined with the derived site-specific CFs, is shown by conducting a case study on E. globulus stands located in Portugal as an example of a land use based system. A spatially explicit LCA assessment was shown to be necessary, since the impacts associated with both green water flows and SS vary greatly as a function of spatial location.

Bach : "Sei solo á violino"

Ao abordar este tema, pretendemos oferecer um possível quadro de meios interpretativos, destinados a uma revelação actualizada do texto bachiano para violino solo. Considerando o manuscrito como fonte básica de informações, são analisados vários aspectos componísticos – ritmo, articulações, polifonia, harmonia, estrutura –, seleccionando os itens ou as características com incidência directa e maiores repercussões sobre a interpretação. Procurou-se encontrar convergências entre: a) a suposta representação sonora do autor, na época, e as especificidades do violino e do arco modernos, b) as dificuldades características do texto e os meios técnicos disponíveis na arte violinística actual, c) as exigências estéticas contemporâneas e a valiosa experiência conquistada, nas últimas décadas, pela interpretação em maneira barroca, autêntica, e com instrumentos originais.

Cartografia geoquímica da ilha de Santiago com uma densidade de amostragem média/baixa

A ilha de Santiago é a maior do arquipélago de Cabo Verde, apresenta uma área de 991 km2, com um comprimento e largura máximos de 54,9 km e 29 km, respectivamente, e 1392 m de maior altitude. As condições climáticas e a erosão são alguns dos problemas naturais do arquipélago de Cabo Verde. Além disso, a intervenção humana no ambiente superficial revela-se muitas vezes inadequada e com forte impacto. A construção em solos com aptidão agrícola ou florestal, as actividades industriais, a deposição de materiais sólidos ou líquidos de forma inadequada, as práticas agrícolas incorrectas e intensivas, o uso abusivo de pesticidas e fertilizantes, a rega com água contaminada, a sobreexploração de aquíferos que levam muitas vezes à salinização, etc. têm enorme impacto em termos de contaminação de solos, águas superficiais e subterrâneas nas áreas envolventes. Por conseguinte, o conhecimento da variabilidade geoquímica natural é fundamental para a resolução de questões de índole económica, ambiental e de ordenamento do território, médica, e jurídica. A necessidade de construir uma base de dados de geoquímica georeferenciada que caracterize o ambiente superficial da ilha de Santiago foi a principal motivação para a realização deste estudo. Realizou-se um levantamento geoquímico de 337 amostras de sedimentos de corrente e 249 amostras de solos na ilha de Santiago, tendo sido seguidas as recomendações do Projecto Internacional IGCP 259 não só na fase de amostragem, mas também nas fases seguintes de preparação, análise, tratamento dos dados e elaboração de mapas. Determinaram-se os teores, na fracção < 2 mm, para 36 elementos – 9 elementos maiores (Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Ti) e 27 elementos vestigiais (Ag, As, Au, B, Ba, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Hg, La, Mo, Ni, Pb, S, Sb, Sc, Se, Sr, Th, Tl, U, V, W, Zn). Efectuou-se ainda a análise textural e estudou-se a composição mineralógica de cerca de 25% das amostras. Analisaram-se, também, 103 amostras de rochas, colhidas nas várias formações da ilha de Santiago, tendo sido determinados os teores de K2O, Na2O, Fe2O3(T), MnO, Sc, Cr, Co, Zn, Ga, As, Br, Rb, Zr, Sb, Cs, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Th e U e REE, a fim de se fazer uma comparação com os teores destes elementos encontrados nos solos e sedimentos de corrente, averiguando se a sua variação é ou não essencialmente condicionada pela geoquímica da rocha-mãe. Os padrões geoquímicos obtidos através dos mapas de distribuição espacial foram correlacionados com a natureza da rocha mãe, o tipo de solo, e ainda com algumas fontes de contaminação. A interpretação dos resultados foi realizada não só pela observação dos mapas geoquímicos, mas também após análise estatística dos conjuntos de dados obtidos, e apoiada em informação diversa disponível. A utilização da Análise de Componentes Principais permitiu distinguir associações entre elementos químicos, quer de origem geogénica quer antropogénica. Foram ainda elaborados mapas de distribuição espacial de vários índices multielementares de importância ambiental, como o Índice de Acidificação Al/(Ca+Mg+K), Índice de Combi, Índice de Avaliação de Risco Ambiental e Índices de Enriquecimento/Contaminação para vários grupos de elementos considerados como “primary pollutant metals”.