Lanthanide oxide nanotubes and nanorods: synthesis, processing, luminescence and catalytic properties

Esta tese relata estudos de síntese, caracterização da estrutura e das propriedades de fotoluminescência e aplicações de nanotubos e nanobastonetes de óxidos de lantanídeos em pontas para microscopia de força atómica, catálise heterogénea e compósitos de base polimérica. Há um interesse crescente em compreender como o confinamento quântico decorrente da redução do tamanho de partícula pode influenciar a eficiência da luminescência, a dinâmica dos estados excitados, a transferência de energia e os efeitos de termalização de nanoluminóforos. Em nanocristais dopados com lantanídeos (Ln3+), e apesar da localização dos estados 4f, ocorrem efeitos de confinamento quântico via interacção com os modos vibracionais da rede. Em particular, a termalização anómala, descrita para uma variedade de nanocristais dopados com Ln3+, tem sido atribuída à ausência de modos vibracionais de menor frequência. Este nanoconfinamento pode ter impacto na dinâmica da luminescência, bem como na transferência de energia mediada por modos vibracionais e processos de upconversion. Nesta tese, relata-se o estudo deste efeito em nanotubos de Gd2O3:Eu3+. A influência de parâmetros como a concentração de európio e as condições de calcinação também foi investigada. Algumas aplicações destes óxidos de lantanídeos também foram exploradas, nomeadamente a modificação de pontas usadas em microscopia de força atómica com nanobastonetes de Gd2O3:Eu3+, lograda através de dielectroforese, técnica que não degrada a emissão de luz (rendimento quântico 0.47). As pontas modificadas são estáveis sob condições de trabalho, podendo ser aplicadas, por exemplo, em microscopia óptica de varrimento de campo próximo (SNOM). A oxidação em fase líquida do etilbenzendo foi investigada usando como catalisador nanotubos de CeO2, em presença dos oxidantes hidroperóxido de t-butilo e H2O2, e do solvente acetonitrilo, e temperaturas entre 55 e 105 ºC. Nanobastonetes de Gd2O3:Eu3+ recobertos com sílica foram preparados pelo método sol-gel. Esta cobertura resultou num aumento, quer do rendimento quântico de emissão, de 0.51 para 0.86 (excitação a 255 nm), quer dos tempos de vida,de 1.43 para 1.80 ms (excitação a 394.4 nm). A superfície dos nanotubos cobertos com sílica foi modificada com o agente de acoplamento metacrilato de 3-(trimetoxissilil)propilo que permitiu a preparação de compósitos através da subsequente polimerização in-situ do estireno por técnicas de miniemulsão e solução. ABSTRACT: This thesis reports on the synthesis, characterisation of the structure and photoluminescence properties, and applications of nanotubes and nanorods of lanthanides oxides in atomic force microscopy tips, heterogeneous catalysis and polymer-base composites. There is a growing interest in understanding how size-dependent quantum confinement affects the photoluminescence efficiency, excited-state dynamics, energy-transfer and thermalisation phenomena in nanophosphors. For lanthanide (Ln3+)-doped nanocrystals, and despite the localisation of the 4f states, confinement effects are induced mostly via electron-phonon interactions. In particular, the anomalous thermalisation reported for a handful of Ln3+-doped nanocrystals has been rationalised by the absence of lowfrequency phonon modes. This nanoconfinement may further impact on the Ln3+ luminescence dynamics, such as phonon-assisted energy transfer or upconversion processes. Here, this effect is investigated in Gd2O3:Eu3+ nanotubes. The influence of parameters such as europium concentration and calcination procedure is also studied. Some applications of these lanthanides oxides have been explored, for instance the modification of atomic force microscopy tips with photoluminescent Gd2O3:Eu3+ nanorods, using dielectrophoresis, a technique which preserves the red emission of the nanorods (quantum yield 0.47). The modified tips are stable under working conditions and may find applications in scanning near-field optical microscopy. The liquid-phase oxidation of ethylbenzene over CeO2 nanotubes has been investigated, using tert-butyl-hydroperoxide and H2O2 as the oxidising agents, and acetonitrile as the solvent, in the range 55-105 ºC. Gd2O3:Eu3+ nanorods have been coated with silica via a sol-gel approach. The silica coating increases both, the Eu3+ absolute emission quantum yields from 0.51 to 0.86 (255 nm excitation), and decay times from 1.43 to 1.80 ms (394.4 nm excitation). The silica coating was modified with 3- (trimethoxysilyl) propyl methacrylate and, subsequently, composites have been prepared by in-situ radical polymerisation of styrene via miniemulsion and solution routes.

Síntese de derivados oligoméricos de porfirinas e ftalocianinas

A presente dissertação contempla estudos de funcionalização de 5,10,15,20- tetrafenilporfirina via grupos nitro e amino e a preparação de sistemas porfirina-ftalocianina. Este trabalho encontra-se dividido em quatro partes. Na primeira parte descrevem-se as características gerais de porfirinas e ftalocianinas bem como algumas metodologias de síntese utilizadas na sua preparação e suas potenciais aplicações. Na segunda parte desta dissertação descreve-se a funcionalização de 5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina com arilaminas recorrendo a duas rotas sintéticas diferentes. A reacção de 2-nitro-5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina com anilina ou aminas aromáticas substituídas com grupos dadores de electrões permitiu, através do ataque do nucleófilo ao carbono beta-pirrólico onde está ligado o grupo nitro, ataque ipso, a obtenção de derivados do tipo 2-arilaminoporfirinas e derivados porfirínicos de anéis fundidos, sendo estes últimos resultantes da ciclização oxidativa de 2-arilaminoporfirinas. A reacção entre (2-amino- 5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirinato)níquel(II) e brometos de arilo na presença de paládio, reacção de aminação de Buchwald-Hartwig, permitiu, após descomplexação, a preparação de novos derivados do tipo 2- arilaminoporfirinas com grupos substituintes dadores e aceitadores de electrões. Um dos derivados porfirínicos de anéis fundidos foi submetido a reacção de complexação com diferentes iões metálicos e foram estudadas as respectivas propriedades fotoquímicas e electroquímicas. Esses estudos revelaram que estes compostos são bons geradores de oxigénio singuleto e que sofrem processos de oxidação-redução electroquimicamente reversíveis. Esta metodologia foi estendida ainda a brometos de hetarilo (derivados de piridina e tiofeno). Recorrendo ao acoplamento, em condições de Buchwald-Hartwig, de complexos metálicos da 5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina, funcionalizados com grupos amino e bromo, preparam-se dímeros porfirina-amino-porfirina, cujos espectros electrónicos revelam a existência de uma boa “comunicação electrónica” entre as duas subunidades. A terceira parte descreve a síntese de sistemas porfirina-ftalocianina. Recorrendo à condensação estatística entre a 5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina substituída com um grupo ftalonitrilo na posição beta-pirrólica com ftalonitrilo ou ftalonitrilo substituído foram obtidas díades porfirina-ftalocianina onde as duas subunidades se encontram directamente ligadas ou fundidas. Os porfirinilftalonitrilos necessários para a síntese das diferentes díades foram preparados através da reacção de adição do fumaronitrilo à 5,10,15,20- tetrafenilporfirina funcionalizada com o grupo 1,3-butadienilo ou vinilo, seguida de oxidação do aducto resultante. O acoplamento catalisado por paládio entre (2-bromo-5,10,15,20- tetrafenilporfirinato)zinco(II) e [9(10),16(17),23(24)-tri-terc-butil-2- etinilftalocianinato]zinco(II) permitiu a síntese de uma díade porfirinaftalocianina com as duas unidades ligadas por um grupo etinilo. Uma pentíade porfirina-ftalocianina foi obtida através da ciclotetramerização de um dos porfirinilftalonitrilos. A comparação dos espectros electrónicos das diferentes classes de sistemas revela que as correspondentes propriedades electrónicas são altamente afectadas pela distância entre as subunidades e também pelo número de cromóforos presentes no sistema. Os estudos fotofísicos de alguns dos novos compostos acima referidos permitiram verificar a ocorrência eficiente de transferência de energia da subunidade porfirínica para a da ftalocianina, capacidade essa que permitirá a estes sistemas serem usados para modelar o processo fotossintético. Na última parte descrevem-se, pormenorizadamente, todas as experiências efectuadas e as caracterizações espectroscópicas, nomeadamente de espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), espectrometria de massa e espectrofotometria de UV-vis, dos compostos sintetizados. Nalguns casos recorreu-se ainda a técnicas de RMN bidimensionais como COSY, HSQC, HMBC, NOESY e ROESY.

Volatile terpenoids and C13 norisoprenoids in wines: development of rapid methods of analysis and evaluation of the sesquiterpenoids biological potential

Vitis vinifera L., the most widely cultivated fruit crop in the world, was the starting point for the development of this PhD thesis. This subject was exploited following on two actual trends: i) the development of rapid, simple, and high sensitive methodologies with minimal sample handling; and ii) the valuation of natural products as a source of compounds with potential health benefits. The target group of compounds under study were the volatile terpenoids (mono and sesquiterpenoids) and C13 norisoprenoids, since they may present biological impact, either from the sensorial point of view, as regards to the wine aroma, or by the beneficial properties for the human health. Two novel methodologies for quantification of C13 norisoprenoids in wines were developed. The first methodology, a rapid method, was based on the headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography-quadrupole mass spectrometry operating at selected ion monitoring mode (HS-SPME/GC-qMS-SIM), using GC conditions that allowed obtaining a C13 norisoprenoid volatile signature. It does not require any pre-treatment of the sample, and the C13 norisoprenoid composition of the wine was evaluated based on the chromatographic profile and specific m/z fragments, without complete chromatographic separation of its components. The second methodology, used as reference method, was based on the HS-SPME/GC-qMS-SIM, allowing the GC conditions for an adequate chromatographic resolution of wine components. For quantification purposes, external calibration curves were constructed with β-ionone, with regression coefficient (r2) of 0.9968 (RSD 12.51 %) and 0.9940 (RSD of 1.08 %) for the rapid method and for the reference method, respectively. Low detection limits (1.57 and 1.10 μg L-1) were observed. These methodologies were applied to seventeen white and red table wines. Two vitispirane isomers (158-1529 L-1) and 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN) (6.42-39.45 μg L-1) were quantified. The data obtained for vitispirane isomers and TDN using the two methods were highly correlated (r2 of 0.9756 and 0.9630, respectively). A rapid methodology for the establishment of the varietal volatile profile of Vitis vinifera L. cv. 'Fernão-Pires' (FP) white wines by headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GCxGC-TOFMS) was developed. Monovarietal wines from different harvests, Appellations, and producers were analysed. The study was focused on the volatiles that seem to be significant to the varietal character, such as mono and sesquiterpenic compounds, and C13 norisoprenoids. Two-dimensional chromatographic spaces containing the varietal compounds using the m/z fragments 93, 121, 161, 175 and 204 were established as follows: 1tR = 255-575 s, 2tR = 0,424-1,840 s, for monoterpenoids, 1tR = 555-685 s, 2tR = 0,528-0,856 s, for C13 norisoprenoids, and 1tR = 695-950 s, 2tR = 0,520-0,960 s, for sesquiterpenic compounds. For the three chemical groups under study, from a total of 170 compounds, 45 were determined in all wines, allowing defining the "varietal volatile profile" of FP wine. Among these compounds, 15 were detected for the first time in FP wines. This study proposes a HS-SPME/GCxGC-TOFMS based methodology combined with classification-reference sample to be used for rapid assessment of varietal volatile profile of wines. This approach is very useful to eliminate the majority of the non-terpenic and non-C13 norisoprenic compounds, allowing the definition of a two-dimensional chromatographic space containing these compounds, simplifying the data compared to the original data, and reducing the time of analysis. The presence of sesquiterpenic compounds in Vitis vinifera L. related products, to which are assigned several biological properties, prompted us to investigate the antioxidant, antiproliferative and hepatoprotective activities of some sesquiterpenic compounds. Firstly, the antiradical capacity of trans,trans-farnesol, cis-nerolidol, α-humulene and guaiazulene was evaluated using chemical (DPPH• and hydroxyl radicals) and biological (Caco-2 cells) models. Guaiazulene (IC50= 0.73 mM) was the sesquiterpene with higher scavenger capacity against DPPH•, while trans,trans-farnesol (IC50= 1.81 mM) and cis-nerolidol (IC50= 1.48 mM) were more active towards hydroxyl radicals. All compounds, with the exception of α-humulene, at non-cytotoxic levels (≤ 1 mM), were able to protect Caco-2 cells from oxidative stress induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide. The activity of the compounds under study was also evaluated as antiproliferative agents. Guaiazulene and cis-nerolidol were able to more effectively arrest the cell cycle in the S-phase than trans,trans-farnesol and α-humulene, being the last almost inactive. The relative hepatoprotection effect of fifteen sesquiterpenic compounds, presenting different chemical structures and commonly found in plants and plant-derived foods and beverages, was assessed. Endogenous lipid peroxidation and induced lipid peroxidation with tert-butyl hydroperoxide were evaluated in liver homogenates from Wistar rats. With the exception of α-humulene, all the sesquiterpenic compounds under study (1 mM) were effective in reducing the malonaldehyde levels in both endogenous and induced lipid peroxidation up to 35% and 70%, respectively. The developed 3D-QSAR models, relating the hepatoprotection activity with molecular properties, showed good fit (R2LOO > 0.819) with good prediction power (Q2 > 0.950 and SDEP < 2%) for both models. A network of effects associated with structural and chemical features of sesquiterpenic compounds such as shape, branching, symmetry, and presence of electronegative fragments, can modulate the hepatoprotective activity observed for these compounds. In conclusion, this study allowed the development of rapid and in-depth methods for the assessment of varietal volatile compounds that might have a positive impact on sensorial and health attributes related to Vitis vinifera L. These approaches can be extended to the analysis of other related food matrices, including grapes and musts, among others. In addition, the results of in vitro assays open a perspective for the promising use of the sesquiterpenic compounds, with similar chemical structures such as those studied in the present work, as antioxidants, hepatoprotective and antiproliferative agents, which meets the current challenges related to diseases of modern civilization.

New oxomolybdenum(VI) hybrid materials

In this thesis, 2,2’-bipyridine (bipy), di-tert-butyl-2,2’-bipyridine (di-t-Bubipy), 2,2’-bipyridine-5,5’-dicarboxylic acid (H2bpdc), 2-[3(5)-pyrazolyl]pyridine (pzpy) and 2-(1-pentyl-3-pyrazolyl)pyridine (pent-pp) ligands were used as the N,N-chelate ligands in the formation of discrete [MoO2Cl2L]-type complexes. These complexes were employed as precursors for the preparation in aqueous media of oxomolybdenum(VI) products with a wide range of structural diversity. Three distinct heating methods were studied: hydrothermal, reflux or microwave-assisted synthesis. An alternative reaction with the inorganic molybdenum(VI) trioxide (MoO3) and the ligands di-t-Bu-bipy, H2bpdc and pzpy was also investigated under hydrothermal conditions. The distinct nature of the N,N-chelate ligands and/or the heating method employed promoted the isolation of a series of new oxomolybdenum(VI) hybrid materials that clearly reflected the strong structure-directing influence of these ligands. Thus, this thesis describes the synthesis and characterization of the discrete mononuclear [MoO2Cl2(pent-pp)], the dinuclear [Mo2O6(di-t-Bu-bipy)2] and the octanuclear [Mo8O22(OH)4(di-t-Bu-bipy)4] complexes as well as the highly unique polymeric materials {[MoO3(bipy)][MoO3(H2O)]}n, (DMA)[MoO3(Hbpdc)]·nH2O, [Mo3O9(pzpy)]n and [Mo2O6(pent-pp)]n (fine structural details of compound [Mo2O6(pent-pp)]n are presently unknown; however, characterization data strongly pointed toward a polymeric oxide hybrid compound). The catalytic behaviour of the discrete complexes and the polymeric compounds was tested in olefin epoxidation reactions. Compounds [Mo3O9(pzpy)]n and [Mo2O6(pent-pp)]n acted as sources of soluble active species that where identified as the oxodiperoxido complexes [MoO(O2)2(pzpy)] and [MoO(O2)2(pent-pp)], respectively. The majority of the compounds here presented were fully characterized by using solid-state techniques, namely elemental analyses, thermogravimetry, FT-IR, solid-state NMR, electron microscopy and powder X-ray diffraction (both from laboratory and/or synchrotron sources).

Barrier properties of poly(lactic acid) based films

In recent years, the search for a environmentally friendly products has increased. One of the major challenges has been the demand for biodegradable materials that can replace plastic. If a few decades ago, plastic replaced, for example, the ivory in billiard balls, and in other products, saving the lives of thousands elephants, nowadays a replacement for that plastic is being searched, to prevent the change of the environmental conditions, essential to life in harmonly with the fauna and flora that the human specie has, in recent years, destroyed. Plastic is a petroleum derivate, whose price has been growing exponentially, mainly due to the fact of beind a cheap material and also to enable the production of products that are essential to modern life. Therefore, the petrochemical era is going to come to an end and a new environmentally sustainable era, based on biodegradable materials from renewable sources, will follow. The change to green routes only will be possible with the support of the major companies, and the implementation of drastic governmental law. Poly(lactic acid), PLA, is produced from the lactose present in the corn or sugarcane and has been intensively studied in recent years because if some limitants properties required its extrusion are overcome, it has the potential to replace the traditional polymers. PLA have high brittleness, low toughness and low tensile elongation. In this work, natural antioxidant (alpha-tocopherol) and synthetics antioxidants (BHT ant TBHQ) were added to the PLA with the aim not only to improve their flexibility, but also to create an active packaging to extend the shelf life of the foods and improve the organoleptic properties by preventing food losses. The impact of the addition of antioxidants into the PLA films, in its mechanical, thermal and barrier properties were studied by FTIR, DSC, SEM, AFM, DMA, TGA, QCM and time-lag techniques.

Biocatálise aplicada à valorização de óleos alimentares usados

O crescente consumo de energia, bem como a possibilidade de esgotamento dos recursos não renováveis, tem fomentado a busca de fontes de energia alternativas. O biodiesel é um biocombustível obtido a partir de fontes renováveis e a sua utilização permite reduzir as emissões de gases com efeito de estufa. Nos últimos anos tem-se produzido biodiesel a partir de óleos alimentares usados (OAU), sendo que com esta aplicação valoriza-se um resíduo e simultaneamente produz-se um combustível “verde”. O biodiesel é produzido através das reações de transesterificação e/ou esterificação entre triglicerídeos e/ou ácidos gordos livres e um álcool, na presença de um catalisador. O rendimento do processo está estritamente relacionado com o tipo de catalisador e as condições que este opera. O principal objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu na avaliação do efeito de alguns parâmetros operacionais no desempenho de uma lípase imobilizada (Novozyme® 435), nomeadamente: (i) índice de acidez do óleo, (ii) razão mássica de enzima/óleo e (iii) método regeneração da enzima com vista à sua reutilização. Também foi objeto de estudo do presente trabalho a produção em contínuo, num (bior)reator tubular de leito fixo, de ésteres metílicos de ácidos gordos (FAME) usando a referida enzima. Registou-se um aumento rendimento em com o incremento do índice de acidez do óleo usado, o que indicia que a enzima catalisa simultaneamente as reações de esterificação e transesterificação. Relativamente à razão mássica de enzima/óleo, dentro da gama testada verificou-se um aumento do rendimento em FAME com a concentração da enzima em meio reacional. Dos vários solventes testados, a aplicação de solvente tert-butanol na regeneração (com incubação) da enzima foi o que melhores resultados teve. Finalmente, os resultados obtidos no ensaio de produção de FAME num biorreator contínuo são motivadores, criando expectativas de uma possível aplicação industrial no futuro.