Ultrastructure and phylogeny of peridinioid dinoflagellates

Os dinoflagelados são um grupo muito diverso de protistas que possuem um conjunto de características pouco comuns. Os peridinióides são dinoflagelados com teca que é formada por seis séries latitudinais de placas, incluindo a série cingular e um anel incompleto de placas intercalares anteriores, embora as últimas estejam ausentes em algumas espécies de Peridiniopsis. São dinoflagelados com simetria bilateral em relação ao plano apical que contem o eixo dorso-ventral. Na série sulcal há apenas uma placa posterior que contacta com o limite ventral de duas grandes placas antapicais. Entre os peridinióides, a presença ou ausência de um poro apical e o número de placas no cíngulo são geralmente consideradas marcas filogenéticas importantes ao nível de género ou família. Actualmente, a definição de Peridinium Ehrenberg, o dinoflagelado mais comum de água doce, inclui organismos com combinações diferentes destas duas características. Trabalhos anteriores sobre a ultrastrutura e afinidade filogenética das espécies tipo de Peridinium, P. cinctum, e Peridiniopsis Lemmermann, P. borgei também sugerem a necessidade de reexaminar as relações taxonómicas dos peridinióides. Esta tese combina o estudo ultrastrutural de uma selecção de espécies com hipóteses filogenéticas baseadas nas sequências de LSU rDNA, para aumentar o nosso conhecimento das diferenças e afinidades dentro dos peridinióides. Tem como objectivo aumentar o nosso conhecimento das características individuais das células que possam levar a reconhecer sinapomorfias que possam ser usadas como marcadores dos peridinióides como um todo e dos seus subgrupos. As espécies escolhidas para exame pormenorizado foram: Peridinium palatinum Lauterborn, de um grupo com duas placas intercalares anteriores, seis placas cingulares e sem poro apical; Peridinium lomnickii Wo!oszy"ska, de um grupo com poro apical, três placas intercalares e seis cingulares; Peridiniopsis berolinensis (Lemmermann) Bourrelly, uma espécie heterotrófica com poro apical, sem placas intercalares e com seis placas cingulares; e Sphaerodinium cracoviense Wo!oszy"ska, um membro de um género de formas com teca com um tipo de tabulação marginalmente peridinióide, com um suposto poro apical e quatro placas intercalares anteriores. Peridinium palatinum difere de Peridinium e Peridiniopsis típicos, quer em características da teca, quer internas. As diferenças estimadas entre as sequências parciais de LSU rDNA de P. palatinum e a espécie próxima P. pseudolaeve, relativamente a P. cinctum são comparativamente grandes e, juntamente com a topologia da árvore filogenética, apoiam a separação de P. palatinum e formas próximas ao nível de género. Palatinus nov. gen. foi, então, descrito com as novas combinações Palatinus apiculatus nov. comb. (espécie tipo; sin. Peridinium palatinum), P. apiculatus var. laevis nov. comb. e P. pseudolaevis nov. comb.. As características distintivas de Palatinus incluem uma superfície das placas lisa ou um tanto granulosa, mas não areolada, um grande pirenóide central penetrado por canais citoplasmáticos e de onde radiam lobos plastidiais, e a presença de uma fiada microtubular homóloga à de um pedúnculo. As células de Palatinus saem da teca pela zona antapicalpos- cingular. Peridinium lomnickii apresenta tabulação semelhante às formas marinhas, produtoras de quistos calcários, do género Scrippsiella A.R. Loeblich. Para comparação, adicionámos novas observações ultrastruturais de S. trochoidea. Peridinium lomnickii tem uma combinação de características diferente de Peridinium, Peridiniopsis e Scrippsiella. As hipóteses filogenéticas baseadas em DNA colocam P. lomnickii no mesmo ramo que Pfiesteria Steidinger et Burkholder, Tyrannodinium e outras Pfiesteriaceae, com as quais partilha um "microtubular basket" e uma ligação peculiar entre duas placas do sulco. As características distintivas do novo género proposto Chimonodinium gen. ined. incluem, além da tabulação, a ausência de pirenóides, a presença de um "microtubular basket" com quatro ou cinco fiadas sobrepostas de microtúbulos associados a um pequeno pedúnculo, um sistema pusular com tubos pusulares bem definidos ligados aos canais flagelares, e a produção de quistos não calcários. Peridiniopsis berolinensis partilha várias características significativas com Pfiesteria e afins, como um "microtubular basket" com a capacidade de suportar um tubo de alimentação, quimiossensibilidade para encontrar presas apropriadas, o modo de natação junto às presas e a organização geral da célula. Hipóteses filogenéticas com base em LSU rDNA confirmam a afinidade entre P. berolinensis e Pfiesteria bem como a relação mais remota com a espécie tipo de Peridiniopsis, P. borgei. Estas razões justificam a proposta de Tyrannodinium gen. nov., uma nova Pfiesteriaceae que difere de outros membros do grupo por viver em água doce e nos pormenores da tabulação. Sphaerodinium cracoviense revelou a tabulação típica do género Sphaerodinium, que apresenta um número de placas intercalares superiores e pos-cingulares maior que o que é típico em peridinióides: 4 e 6, respectivamente. Observações em SEM mostraram uma estrutura apical diferente da dos peridinióides, e um sulco apical numa das placas fazendo lembrar a área apical de alguns woloszynskióides. Os pormenores do aparelho flagelar e do sistema pusular ligam o Sphaerodinium aos woloszynskióides em geral e ao género Baldinia em particular, mas não aos peridinióides. O volumoso estigma de S. cracoviense revelou ser extraplastidial e de um modelo único, composto por elementos que se encontram em woloszynskióides, mas nunca encontrados anteriormente juntos. A análise filogenética baseada nas sequências parciais de LSU rDNA também sugerem uma maior proximidade de S. cracoviense com os woloszynskióides do que com os peridinióides. Futuras análises pormenorizadas de dinoflagelados peridinióides, em especial entre os do numeroso grupo de espécies com poro apical, serão necessárias para clarificar as suas relações taxonómicas; e a produção de descrições melhoradas das características finas particulares das células serão um requisito para perceber a evolução dos caracteres dos peridinióides por forma a podermos identificar marcadores filogenéticos.

Modelling the Minho river plume intrusion into the rias baixas

The Minho River, situated 30 km south of the Rias Baixas is the most important freshwater source flowing into the Western Galician Coast (NW of the Iberian Peninsula). This discharge is important to determine the hydrological patterns adjacent to its mouth, particularly close to the Galician coastal region. The buoyancy generated by the Minho plume can flood the Rias Baixas for long periods, reversing the normal estuarine density gradients. Thus, it becomes important to analyse its dynamics as well as the thermohaline patterns of the areas affected by the freshwater spreading. Thus, the main aim of this work was to study the propagation of the Minho estuarine plume to the Rias Baixas, establishing the conditions in which this plume affects the circulation and hydrographic features of these coastal systems, through the development and application of the numerical model MOHID. For this purpose, the hydrographic features of the Rias Baixas mouths were studied. It was observed that at the northern mouths, due to their shallowness, the heat fluxes between the atmosphere and ocean are the major forcing, influencing the water temperature, while at the southern mouths the influence of the upwelling events and the Minho River discharge were more frequent. The salinity increases from south to north, revealing that the observed low values may be caused by the Minho River freshwater discharge. An assessment of wind data along the Galician coast was carried out, in order to evaluate the applicability of the study to the dispersal of the Minho estuarine plume. Firstly, a comparative analysis between winds obtained from land meteorological stations and offshore QuikSCAT satellite were performed. This comparison revealed that satellite data constitute a good approach to study wind induced coastal phenomena. However, since the numerical model MOHID requires wind data with high spatial and temporal resolution close to the coast, results of the forecasted model WRF were added to the previous study. The analyses revealed that the WRF model data is a consistent tool to obtain representative wind data near the coast, showing good results when comparing with in situ wind observations from oceanographic buoys. To study the influence of the Minho buoyant discharge influence on the Rias Baixas, a set of three one-way nested models was developed and implemented, using the numerical model MOHID. The first model domain is a barotropic model and includes the whole Iberian Peninsula coast. The second and third domains are baroclinic models, where the second domain is a coarse representation of the Rias Baixas and adjacent coastal area, while the third includes the same area with a higher resolution. A bi-dimensional model was also implemented in the Minho estuary, in order to quantify the flow (and its properties) that the estuary injects into the ocean. The chosen period for the Minho estuarine plume propagation validation was the spring of 1998, since a high Minho River discharge was reported, as well as favourable wind patterns to advect the estuarine plume towards the Rias Baixas, and there was field data available to compare with the model predictions. The obtained results show that the adopted nesting methodology was successful implemented. Model predictions reproduce accurately the hydrodynamics and thermohaline patterns on the Minho estuary and Rias Baixas. The importance of the Minho river discharge and the wind forcing in the event of May 1998 was also studied. The model results showed that a continuous moderate Minho River discharge combined with southerly winds is enough to reverse the Rias Baixas circulation pattern, reducing the importance of the occurrence of specific events of high runoff values. The conditions in which the estuarine plume Minho affects circulation and hydrography of the Rias Baixas were evaluated. The numerical results revealed that the Minho estuarine plume responds rapidly to wind variations and is also influenced by the bathymetry and morphology of the coastline. Without wind forcing, the plume expands offshore, creating a bulge in front of the river mouth. When the wind blows southwards, the main feature is the offshore extension of the plume. Otherwise, northward wind spreads the river plume towards the Rias Baixas. The plume is confined close to the coast, reaching the Rias Baixas after 1.5 days. However, for Minho River discharges higher than 800 m3 s-1, the Minho estuarine plume reverses the circulation patterns in the Rias Baixas. It was also observed that the wind stress and Minho River discharge are the most important factors influencing the size and shape of the Minho estuarine plume. Under the same conditions, the water exchange between Rias Baixas was analysed following the trajectories particles released close to the Minho River mouth. Over 5 days, under Minho River discharges higher than 2100 m3 s-1 combined with southerly winds of 6 m s-1, an intense water exchange between Rias was observed. However, only 20% of the particles found in Ria de Pontevedra come directly from the Minho River. In summary, the model application developed in this study contributed to the characterization and understanding of the influence of the Minho River on the Rias Baixas circulation and hydrography, highlighting that this methodology can be replicated to other coastal systems.

Effects of environmental factors on the toxicity of pesticides to zebrafish embryos

During the last century mean global temperatures have been increasing. According to the predictions, the temperature change is expected to exceed 1.5ºC in this century and the warming is likely to continue. Freshwater ecosystems are among the most sensitive mainly due to changes in the hydrologic cycle and consequently changes in several physico-chemical parameters (e.g. pH, dissolved oxygen). Alterations in environmental parameters of freshwater systems are likely to affect distribution, morphology, physiology and richness of a wide range of species leading to important changes in ecosystem biodiversity and function. Moreover, they can also work as co-stressors in environments where organisms have already to cope with chemical contamination (such as pesticides), increasing the environmental risk due to potential interactions. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of climate change related environmental parameters on the toxicity of pesticides to zebrafish embryos. The following environmental factors were studied: pH (3.0-12.0), dissolved oxygen level (0-8 mg/L) and UV radiation (0-500 mW/m2). The pesticides studied were the carbamate insecticide carbaryl and the benzimidazole fungicide carbendazim. Stressors were firstly tested separately in order to derive concentration- or intensity-response curves to further study the effects of binary combinations (environmental factors x pesticides) by applying mixture models. Characterization of zebrafish embryos response to environmental stress revealed that pH effects were fully established after 24 h of exposure and survival was only affected at pH values below 5 and above 10. Low oxygen levels also affected embryos development at concentrations below 4 mg/L (delay, heart rate decrease and edema), and at concentrations below 0.5 mg/L the survival was drastically reduced. Continuous exposure to UV radiation showed a strong time-dependent impact on embryos survival leading to 100% of mortality after 72 hours of exposure. The toxicity of pesticides carbaryl and carbendazim was characterized at several levels of biological organization including developmental, biochemical and behavioural allowing a mechanistic understanding of the effects and highlighting the usefulness of behavioural responses (locomotion) as a sensitive endpoint in ecotoxicology. Once the individual concentration response relationship of each stressor was established, a combined toxicity study was conducted to evaluate the effects of pH on the toxicity of carbaryl. We have shown that pH can modify the toxicity of the pesticide carbaryl. The conceptual model concentration addition allowed a precise prediction of the toxicity of the jointeffects of acid pH and carbaryl. Nevertheless, for alkaline condition both concepts failed in predicting the effects. Deviations to the model were however easy to explain as high pH values favour the hydrolysis of carbaryl with the consequent formation of the more toxic degradation product 1- naphtol. Although in the present study such explanatory process was easy to establish, for many other combinations the “interactive” nature is not so evident. In the context of the climate change few scenarios predict such increase in the pH of aquatic systems, however this was a first approach focused in the lethal effects only. In a second tier assessment effects at sublethal level would be sought and it is expectable that more subtle pH changes (more realistic in terms of climate changes scenarios) may have an effect at physiological and biochemical levels with possible long term consequences for the population fitness.