Materiais à base de Sr(Ti,Nb)O3 para sensores lambda

Os sensores lambda resistivos possuem as vantagens de simplicidade e menor custo relativamente à utilização generalizada de sensores potenciométricos de oxigénio. Nesse sentido, os titanatos de estrôncio têm sido alvo de diversos estudos. Para a produção de uma relação inequívoca entre a condutividade destes materiais e a pressão parcial de oxigénio é necessária a adição de um dopante dador que suprime a condução eletrónica do tipo-p na região de pressões parciais de oxigénio próximas de ar. Contudo, a adição de um dopante dador produz respostas lentas destes materiais quando densos a variações da pressão parcial de oxigénio. Além da preparação usual dos pós por reação do estado sólido, foram preparadas diversas composições por mecanossíntese. Tal relaciona-se com o fato exaustivamente reportado de as amostras destes materiais, especialmente quando dopados com dadores, apresentarem comportamentos dependentes das condições de processamento. Teve ainda o intuito de avaliar a viabilidade da sua preparação por este método, e consequentemente verificar se este método de preparação, que presumivelmente produzirá pós com composição mais homogénea e mais reativos, permite alterar/manipular a resposta obtida por amostras com eles produzidas. Foram preparados diversos filmes, tipologia muito usada na produção de sensores resistivos, e amostras porosas com diversas composições à base de titanato de estrôncio produzidos com variadas condições de processamento. Foram realizadas diversas caracterizações sobre estes espécimes numa tentativa de melhor compreender as propriedades destes materiais e a dependência destas com parâmetros microestruturais como o tamanho de grão e a porosidade. Foi verificado que os exemplares de titanato de estrôncio não dopado, quer em filmes quer em amostras porosas, apresentam um comportamento elétrico semelhante ao apresentado por amostras densas deste material. Apurou-se ainda, que as suas características apresentam uma variação ténue com a alteração das condições de processamento. Já espécimes de titanato de estrôncio dopados com dador revelam uma forte dependência das suas propriedades com as condições de processamento utilizadas, nomeadamente, a temperatura de sinterização e o tempo de permanência a essa temperatura. Para o fabrico de sensores resistivos de oxigénio poderá ser preferível o recurso a amostras porosas pelo facto de mais facilmente se manipularem as suas características microestruturais e devido à exclusão dos problemas associados à interação entre o substrato de alumina e o filme. As composições não dopadas são as indicadas para esta função se a gama de pressões de oxigénio a avaliar for relativamente pouco extensa sendo aconselhadas as composições dopadas com dador se for pretendida uma medição da pressão parcial de oxigénio em zonas mais extensas correspondentes à queima com deficiência ou excesso de oxigénio. Mesmo em amostras de elevada porosidade poderá ocorrer resposta transiente do material dopado com dador.

Piezoresponse force microscopy of ferroelectric relaxors

Nesta tese, ferroeléctricos relaxor (I dont know uf the order is correct) de base Pb das familias (Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O3 (PLZT), Pb(Mg1/3,Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO3 (PMN-PT), Pb(Zn1/3,Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO3 (PZN-PT) foram investigados e analisados. As propriedades ferroeléctricas e dieléctricas das amostras foram estudadas por métodos convencionais de macro e localmente por microscopia de força piezoeléctrica (PFM). Nos cerâmicos PLZT 9.75/65/35 o contraste da PFM à escala nanometrica _ foi investigado em função do tamanho e orientação dos grãos. Apurou-se que a intensidade do sinal piezoeléctrico das nanoestruturas diminui com o aumento da temperatura e desaparece a 490 K (La mol. 8%) e 420 K (9,5%). Os ciclos de histerese locais foram obtidos em função da temperatura. A evolução dos parâmetros macroscópicos e locais com a temperatura de superfície sugere um forte efeito de superfície nas transições de fase ferroeléctricas do material investigado. A rugosidade da parede de domínio é determinada por PFM para a estrutura de domínio natural existente neste ferroeléctrico policristalino. Além disso, os domínios ferroeléctricos artificiais foram criados pela aplicação de pulsos eléctricos à ponta do condutor PFM e o tamanho de domínio in-plane foi medido em função da duração do pulso. Todas estas experiências levaram à conclusão de que a parede de domínio em relaxors do tipo PZT é quase uma interface unidimensional. O mecanismo de contraste na superfície de relaxors do tipo PLZT é medido por PFMAs estruturas de domínio versus evolução da profundidade foram estudadas em cristais PZN-4,5%PT, com diferentes orientações através da PFM. Padrões de domínio irregulares com tamanhos típicos de 20-100 nm foram observados nas superfícies com orientação <001> das amostras unpoled?. Pelo contrário, os cortes de cristal <111> exibem domínios regulares de tamanho mícron normal, com os limites do domínio orientados ao longo dos planos cristalográficos permitidos. A existência de nanodomínios em cristais com orientação <001> está provisoriamente (wrong Word) atribuída à natureza relaxor de PZN-PT, onde pequenos grupos polares podem formar-se em coindições de zero-field-cooling (ZFC). Estes nanodomínios são considerados como os núcleos do estado de polarização oposta e podem ser responsáveis pelo menor campo coercitivo para este corte de cristal em particular. No entanto, a histerese local piezoelétrica realizada pelo PFM à escala nanométrica indica uma mudança de comportamento de PZN-PT semelhante para ambas as orientações cristalográficas investigadas. A evolução das estruturas de domínio com polimento abaixo da superfície do cristal foi investigada. O domínio de ramificações e os efeitos de polarização de triagem após o polimento e as medições de temperatura têm sido estudados pela PFM e pela análise SEM. Além disso, verificou-se que a intensidade do sinal piezoeléctrico a partir das estruturas de nanodomínio diminui com o aumento da temperatura, acabando por desaparecer aos 430 K (orientaçáo <111>) e 470 K (orientação <100>). Esta diferença de temperatura nas transições de fase local em cristais de diferentes orientações é explicada pelo forte efeito de superfície na transição da fase ferroelétrica em relaxors.A comutação da polarização em relaxor ergódico e nas fases ferroeléctricas do sistema PMN-PT foram realizadas pela combinação de três métodos, Microscopia de Força Piezoeléctrica, medição de um único ponto de relaxamento eletromecânico e por ultimo mapeamento de espectroscopia de tensão. A dependência do comportamento do relaxamento na amplitude e tempo da tensão de pulso foi encontrada para seguir um comportamento logarítmico universal com uma inclinação quase constante. Este comportamento é indicativo da progressiva população dos estados de relaxamento lento, ao contrário de uma relaxação linear na presença de uma ampla distribuição do tempo de relaxamento. O papel do comportamento de relaxamento, da não-linearidade ferroeléctrica e da heterogeneidade espacial do campo na ponta da sonda de AFM sobre o comportamento do ciclo de histerese é analisada em detalhe. Os ciclos de histerese para ergódica PMN- 10%PT são mostrados como cineticamente limitados, enquanto que no PMN, com maior teor de PT, são observados verdadeiros ciclos de histerese ferroeléctrica com viés de baixa nucleação.

Materiais à base de óxidos com estrutura do tipo perovskite e compósitos como ânodos de PCES

This work was focused on the analysis of transport, thermomechanical and electrochemical properties of a series of perovskite-like oxide materials and composites for potential applications as anodes of intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) with lanthanum gallate and silicate solid electrolytes. The primary attention was centered on A(Mn,Nb)O3-δ (A = Sr, Ca) and (La,Sr)(Mn,Ti)O3-based systems, lanthanum chromite substituted with acceptor-type and variable-valence cations, and various Ni-containing cermets. Emphasis was given to phase stability of the materials, their crystal structure, microstructure of porous electrode layers and dense ceramics, electronic conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, oxygen permeability, thermal and chemical induced expansion, and anodic overpotentials of the electrodes deposited onto (La,Sr)(Ga,Mg)O3- and La10(Si,Al)6O27- based electrolyte membranes. In selected cases, roles of oxygen diffusivity, states of the transition metal cations relevant for the electronic transport, catalytically active additives and doped ceria protective interlayers introduced in the model electrochemical cells were assessed. The correlations between transport properties of the electrode materials and electrochemical behavior of porous electrodes showed that the principal factors governing anode performance include, in particular, electronic conduction of the anode compositions and cation interdiffusion between the electrodes and solid electrolytes. The latter is critically important for the silicatebased electrolyte membranes, leading to substantially worse anode properties compared to the electrochemical cells with lanthanum gallate solid electrolyte. The results made it possible to select several anode compositions exhibiting lower area-specific electrode resistivity compared to known analogues, such as (La,Sr)(Cr,Mn)O3-δ.

Regional and urban air quality modelling under a climate change scenario

The better understanding of the interactions between climate change and air quality is an emerging priority for research and policy. Climate change will bring changes in the climate system, which will affect the concentration and dispersion of air pollutants. The main objective of the current study is to assess the impacts of climate change on air quality in 2050 over Portugal and Porto urban area. First, an evaluation and characterization of the air quality over mainland Portugal was performed for the period between 2002 and 2012. The results show that NO2, PM10 and O3 are the critical pollutants in Portugal. Also, the influence of meteorology on O3, NO2 and PM10 levels was investigate in the national main urban areas (Porto and Lisboa) and was verified that O3 has a statistically significant relationship with temperature in most of the components. The results also indicate that emission control strategies are primary regulators for NO2 and PM10 levels. After, understanding the national air quality problems and the influence that meteorology had in the historical air quality levels, the air quality modelling system WRF-CAMx was tested and the required inputs for the simulations were prepared to fulfil the main goal of this work. For the required air quality modelling inputs, an Emission Projections under RCP scenarios (EmiPro-RCP) model was developed to assist the estimation of future emission inventories for GHG and common air pollutants. Also, the current emissions were estimated for Portugal with a higher detailed disaggregation to improve the performance of the air quality simulations. The air quality modelling system WRF/CAMx was tested and evaluated over Portugal and Porto urban area and the results point out that is an adequate tool for the analysis of air quality under climate change. For this purpose, regional simulations of air quality during historical period and future (2045-2050) were conducted with CAMx version 6.0 to evaluate the impacts of simulated future climate and anthropogenic emission projections on air quality over the study area. The climate and the emission projections were produced under the RCP8.5 scenario. The results from the simulations point out, that if the anthropogenic emissions keep the same in 2050, the concentrations of NO2, PM10 and O3 will increase in Portugal. When, besides the climate change effects, is consider the projected anthropogenic emissions the annual mean concentrations of NO2 decrease significantly in Portugal and Porto urban area, and on the contrary the annual mean PM10 concentrations increases in Portugal and decrease in Porto urban area. The O3 results are mainly caused by the reduction of ozone precursors, getting the higher reductions in urban areas and increases in the surrounding areas. All the analysis performed for both simulations for Porto urban area support that, for PM10 and O3, there will be an increase in the occurrence of extreme values, surpassing the annual legislated parameters and having more daily exceedances. This study constitutes an innovative scientific tool to help in future air quality management in order to mitigate future climate change impacts on air quality.

Functional alkali tantalate 2D structures for microelectronics and related applications

Alkali tantalates and niobates, including K(Ta / Nb)O3, Li(Ta / Nb)O3 and Na(Ta / Nb)O3, are a very promising ferroic family of lead-free compounds with perovskite-like structures. Their versatile properties make them potentially interesting for current and future application in microelectronics, photocatalysis, energy and biomedics. Among them potassium tantalate, KTaO3 (KTO), has been raising interest as an alternative for the well-known strontium titanate, SrTiO3 (STO). KTO is a perovskite oxide with a quantum paraelectric behaviour when electrically stimulated and a highly polarizable lattice, giving opportunity to tailor its properties via external or internal stimuli. However problems related with the fabrication of either bulk or 2D nanostructures makes KTO not yet a viable alternative to STO. Within this context and to contribute scientifically to the leverage tantalate based compounds applications, the main goals of this thesis are: i) to produce and characterise thin films of alkali tantalates by chemical solution deposition on rigid Si based substrates, at reduced temperatures to be compatible with Si technology, ii) to fulfil scientific knowledge gaps in these relevant functional materials related to their energetics and ii) to exploit alternative applications for alkali tantalates, as photocatalysis. In what concerns the synthesis attention was given to the understanding of the phase formation in potassium tantalate synthesized via distinct routes, to control the crystallization of desired perovskite structure and to avoid low temperature pyrochlore or K-deficient phases. The phase formation process in alkali tantalates is far from being deeply analysed, as in the case of Pb-containing perovskites, therefore the work was initially focused on the process-phase relationship to identify the driving forces responsible to regulate the synthesis. Comparison of phase formation paths in conventional solid-state reaction and sol-gel method was conducted. The structural analyses revealed that intermediate pyrochlore K2Ta2O6 structure is not formed at any stage of the reaction using conventional solid-state reaction. On the other hand in the solution based processes, as alkoxide-based route, the crystallization of the perovskite occurs through the intermediate pyrochlore phase; at low temperatures pyrochlore is dominant and it is transformed to perovskite at >800 °C. The kinetic analysis carried out by using Johnson-MehlAvrami-Kolmogorow model and quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) demonstrated that in sol-gel derived powders the crystallization occurs in two stages: i) at early stage of the reaction dominated by primary nucleation, the mechanism is phase-boundary controlled, and ii) at the second stage the low value of Avrami exponent, n ~ 0.3, does not follow any reported category, thus not permitting an easy identification of the mechanism. Then, in collaboration with Prof. Alexandra Navrotsky group from the University of California at Davis (USA), thermodynamic studies were conducted, using high temperature oxide melt solution calorimetry. The enthalpies of formation of three structures: pyrochlore, perovskite and tetragonal tungsten bronze K6Ta10.8O30 (TTB) were calculated. The enthalpies of formation from corresponding oxides, ∆Hfox, for KTaO3, KTa2.2O6 and K6Ta10.8O30 are -203.63 ± 2.84 kJ/mol, - 358.02 ± 3.74 kJ/mol, and -1252.34 ± 10.10 kJ/mol, respectively, whereas from elements, ∆Hfel, for KTaO3, KTa2.2O6 and K6Ta10.8O30 are -1408.96 ± 3.73 kJ/mol, -2790.82 ± 6.06 kJ/mol, and -13393.04 ± 31.15 kJ/mol, respectively. The possible decomposition reactions of K-deficient KTa2.2O6 pyrochlore to KTaO3 perovskite and Ta2O5 (reaction 1) or to TTB K6Ta10.8O30 and Ta2O5 (reaction 2) were proposed, and the enthalpies were calculated to be 308.79 ± 4.41 kJ/mol and 895.79 ± 8.64 kJ/mol for reaction 1 and reaction 2, respectively. The reactions are strongly endothermic, indicating that these decompositions are energetically unfavourable, since it is unlikely that any entropy term could override such a large positive enthalpy. The energetic studies prove that pyrochlore is energetically more stable phase than perovskite at low temperature. Thus, the local order of the amorphous precipitates drives the crystallization into the most favourable structure that is the pyrochlore one with similar local organization; the distance between nearest neighbours in the amorphous or short-range ordered phase is very close to that in pyrochlore. Taking into account the stoichiometric deviation in KTO system, the selection of the most appropriate fabrication / deposition technique in thin films technology is a key issue, especially concerning complex ferroelectric oxides. Chemical solution deposition has been widely reported as a processing method to growth KTO thin films, but classical alkoxide route allows to crystallize perovskite phase at temperatures >800 °C, while the temperature endurance of platinized Si wafers is ~700 °C. Therefore, alternative diol-based routes, with distinct potassium carboxylate precursors, was developed aiming to stabilize the precursor solution, to avoid using toxic solvents and to decrease the crystallization temperature of the perovskite phase. Studies on powders revealed that in the case of KTOac (solution based on potassium acetate), a mixture of perovskite and pyrochlore phases is detected at temperature as low as 450 °C, and gradual transformation into monophasic perovskite structure occurs as temperature increases up to 750 °C, however the desired monophasic KTaO3 perovskite phase is not achieved. In the case of KTOacac (solution with potassium acetylacetonate), a broad peak is detected at temperatures <650 °C, characteristic of amorphous structures, while at higher temperatures diffraction lines from pyrochlore and perovskite phases are visible and a monophasic perovskite KTaO3 is formed at >700 °C. Infrared analysis indicated that the differences are due to a strong deformation of the carbonate-based structures upon heating. A series of thin films of alkali tantalates were spin-coated onto Si-based substrates using diol-based routes. Interestingly, monophasic perovskite KTaO3 films deposited using KTOacac solution were obtained at temperature as low as 650 °C; films were annealed in rapid thermal furnace in oxygen atmosphere for 5 min with heating rate 30 °C/sec. Other compositions of the tantalum based system as LiTaO3 (LTO) and NaTaO3 (NTO), were successfully derived as well, onto Si substrates at 650 °C as well. The ferroelectric character of LTO at room temperature was proved. Some of dielectric properties of KTO could not be measured in parallel capacitor configuration due to either substrate-film or filmelectrode interfaces. Thus, further studies have to be conducted to overcome this issue. Application-oriented studies have also been conducted; two case studies: i) photocatalytic activity of alkali tantalates and niobates for decomposition of pollutant, and ii) bioactivity of alkali tantalate ferroelectric films as functional coatings for bone regeneration. Much attention has been recently paid to develop new type of photocatalytic materials, and tantalum and niobium oxide based compositions have demonstrated to be active photocatalysts for water splitting due to high potential of the conduction bands. Thus, various powders of alkali tantalates and niobates families were tested as catalysts for methylene blue degradation. Results showed promising activities for some of the tested compounds, and KNbO3 is the most active among them, reaching over 50 % degradation of the dye after 7 h under UVA exposure. However further modifications of powders can improve the performance. In the context of bone regeneration, it is important to have platforms that with appropriate stimuli can support the attachment and direct the growth, proliferation and differentiation of the cells. In lieu of this here we exploited an alternative strategy for bone implants or repairs, based on charged mediating signals for bone regeneration. This strategy includes coating metallic 316L-type stainless steel (316L-SST) substrates with charged, functionalized via electrical charging or UV-light irradiation, ferroelectric LiTaO3 layers. It was demonstrated that the formation of surface calcium phosphates and protein adsorption is considerably enhanced for 316L-SST functionalized ferroelectric coatings. Our approach can be viewed as a set of guidelines for the development of platforms electrically functionalized that can stimulate tissue regeneration promoting direct integration of the implant in the host tissue by bone ingrowth and, hence contributing ultimately to reduce implant failure.