Inputs from a mercury-contaminated lagoon: impact on the nearshore waters of the Atlantic Ocean

Ria de Aveiro, a Portuguese coastal lagoon that exchanges water with the Atlantic Ocean, received the effluent from a chlor-alkali industry for over 50 years; consequently several tons of mercury had been buried in the sediments of an inner basin. To assess the importance (and seasonal variation) of the lagoon waters as carriers of mercury to the nearby coastal area, we measured total mercury levels in several compartments: in surface sediments, in surface and deep waters (including dissolved and particulate matter!, and in biota. Dissolved (reactive and total) mercury concentrations both in surface and deep waters were low (<1 to 15 ng L '). Mean mercury values in suspended particulate matter varied hetween 0.2 and 0.6 jxg g ' and in sediments between 1 and 9 ng g '. Aquatic organisms displayed levels below regulatory limits but exhibited some bioaccumulation of mercury, with concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 0.8 ^ig g ' Idry weight (dw)|. No seasonal pattern was found in this study for mercury-related determinations. Levels found in the estuary mouth during ebb tide provide evidence for the transport of mercury to the coastal zone. No significant changes in the partition of mercury between dissolved and particulate phases were found in the coastal waters in comparison with the values found in the estuary mouth. In spite of the high levels of mercury found inside some areas of the lagoon, the wide web of islands and channels allows some spreading of contaminants before they reach the coastal waters. Moreover, the low efficiency of local marine sediments in trapping mercury contributes to a dilution of mercury transported in suspended particulate matter over a broader area, reducing the impact in the nearby manne coastal zone.

Impact of natural and/or chemical stressors on the freeze-tolerant and euryhaline enchytraeid, Enchytraeus albidus

Rapid climatic changes are taking place in Arctic, subarctic and cold temperate regions, where predictions point to an increase in freeze-thaw events, changes in precipitation, evaporation and salinity patterns. Climate change may therefore result in large impacts in ecosystem functioning and dynamics, especially in the presence of contaminants due to intense anthropogenic activities. Even though multiple stress approaches have received increasing interest in the last decades, the number of such studies is limited. In particular, knowledge on the effect of freezethaw events and salinity fluctuations on ecotoxicology of soil invertebrates is lacking, especially important when considering supralittoral species. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to investigate the effects of low temperature and salinity fluctuations, singly and in combination with contaminants, in the freeze-tolerant and euryhaline enchytraeid Enchytraeus albidus. The assessment of population level endpoints (survival and reproduction), along with physiological and biochemical parameters such as levels of cryoprotectants, ice/water content, oxidative stress biomarkers, cellular energy allocation, and tissue concentration of chemicals (when applied), provided new and valuable knowledge on the effects of selected physical and chemical stressors in E. albidus, and allowed the understanding of adjustments in the primary response mechanisms that enable worms to maintain homeostasis and survival in harsh environments such as polar and temperate-cold regions. The presence of moderate levels of salinity significantly increased freeze-tolerance (mainly evaluated as survival, cryoprotection and ice fraction) and reproduction of E. albidus. Moreover, it contributed to the readjustments of cryoprotectant levels, restoration of antioxidant levels and changed singnificantly the effect and uptake of chemicals (copper cadmium, carbendazim and 4-nonylphenol). Temperature fluctuations (simulated as daily freeze-thaw cycles, between -2ºC and -4ºC) caused substancial negative effect on survival of worms previsouly exposed to non-lethal concentrations of 4-nonylphenol, as compared with constant freezing (-4ºC) and control temperature (2ºC). The decrease in cryoprotectants, increase in energy consumption and the highest concentration of 4-nonylphenol in the tissues have highlighted the high energy requirements and level of toxicity experienced by worms exposed to the combined effect of contaminants and freezing-thawing events. The findings reported on this thesis demonstrate that natural (physical) and chemical stressors, singly or in combination, may alter the dynamics of E. albidus, affecting not only their survival and reproduction (and consequent presence/distribution) but also their physiological and biochemical adaptations. These alterations may lead to severe consequences for the functioning of the ecosystems along the Arctic, subarctic and cold temperate regions, where they play an important role for decomposition of dead organic matter. This thesis provides a scientific basis for improving the setting of safety factors for natural soil ecosystems, and to underline the integration of similar investigations in ecotoxicology, and eventually in risk assessment of contaminants.