Carbapenemases of Serratia fonticola UTAD54

As carbapenemases, serínicas e metalo-β-lactamases (MBLs), formam um grupo cada vez mais importante de β-lactamases capazes de tornar as bactérias resistentes a antibióticos β-lactâmicos, incluindo carbapenemos utilizados como antibióticos de último recurso no tratamento de infecções causadas por bactérias multirresistentes. De modo a compreender melhor a relação estrutura-função deste grupo de enzimas, prosseguimos com a caracterização bioquímica e estrutural das carbapenemases SFC-1 e Sfh-I específicas de Serratia fonticola UTAD54, uma estirpe ambiental isolada previamente de águas de consumo não tratadas no Nordeste de Portugal. Ambas as β-lactamases foram sobre-expressas em Escherichia coli e purificadas por cromatografia líquida. A SFC-1 recombinante, uma carbapenemase serínica, hidrolisa eficientemente antibióticos β-lactâmicos de todas as classes e exibe, comparativamente a enzimas relacionadas (ex. KPC), uma maior eficiência contra a ceftazidima e uma menor susceptibilidade aos inibidores convencionais das β-lactamases. As estruturas do cristal da SFC-1 nativa e de complexos de mutantes, obtidos por mutagénese dirigida, com o meropenemo não hidrolisado e na forma de acetilenzima foram determinados por substituição molecular utilizando cristalografia de raios-X. A estrutura da SFC-1 contém todas as características conservadas do centro activo das carbapenemases de classe A. Nas estruturas dos mutantes o meropenemo aparece orientado no centro activo por Thr236 e Thr238, posicionando-o próximo da Ser130 para a transferência do protão. Nas enzimas de classe A inibidas por carbapenemos, a interacção com a Arg244 impõe uma orientação diferente do meropenemo ligado, prejudicando a transferência do protão. Estas constituem as primeiras estruturas de uma carbapenemase de classe A com um carbapenemo no centro activo e revelam que estas enzimas alteram a orientação do meropenemo ligado para promover a catálise, sem alteração significativa da estrutura geral. A Sfh-I, tal como as outras MBLs da subclasse B2, apresenta um perfil de substratos reduzido, que inclui maioritariamente os carbapenemos. A Sfh-I hidrolisa imipenemo e meropenemo com um kcat de 51 e 109 s-1 e um KM de 79 e 215 μM, respectivamente. A Sfh-I liga um equivalente de zinco, como demonstrado por espectrometria de massa. Contrariamente a enzimas da subclasse B2 previamente caracterizadas, a Sfh-I hidrolisa a cefepima, mostrando que a Sfh-I é uma MBL da subclasse B2 com propriedades únicas. Por espectroscopia de fluorescência mostrou-se que a Sfh-I é capaz de ligar até 3 equivalentes de zinco (Kd2 = 95 μM; Kd3 = 2.3 mM). A estrutura do cristal da Sfh-I, determinada por substituição molecular utilizando a CphA como modelo, é a primeira para uma MBL da subclasse B2 não ligada. Esta estrutura revela a disposição das moléculas de água no centro activo corroborando um mecanismo catalítico para as MBLs da subclasse B2 no qual a His118, em vez do Asp120 proposto anteriormente, activa a molécula de água nucleofílica.

Soil function and biodiversity: regional variations and climate changes

Embora o objetivo principal da proteção internacional dos solos seja proteger tanto as funções quanto a estrutura do solo, a atual abordagem trata principalmente da proteção ao nível estrutural. Há uma carência de estudos que contemplem a ligação das funções do solo com os níveis da comunidade. Além disso, é ainda desconhecido se as variáveis ambientais (ex: tipos de solo, condições climáticas) atuam nas funções do solo da mesma maneira que influenciam sua estrutura biológica. Ademais, as alterações climáticas poderão ter sozinhas ou combinadas com os poluentes, um grande efeito nos ecossistemas terrestres. O presente trabalho propõe estudar as funções e a estrutura biológica do solo quando impactados devido a estresse tóxico (poluição por Cu) e/ou alterações a fatores como a temperatura e abundância de organismos, de maneira a simular possíveis variações regionais ou climáticas. Para alcançar os objetivos principais 3 experiências utilizando diferentes densidades de E. crypticus e 2 gerações foram feitas (Capítulos II e III). Duas experiências com mesocosmos (SMS) decorreram durante 3 meses sob uma gama de diversas temperaturas (10 – 29°C), que representam temperaturas médias para Portugal e Dinamarca (Capítulos IV e V). Duas experiências de campo também foram realizadas com intuito de validar os SMSs (Capítulo VI). Resultados demonstraram que os efeitos do Cu na reprodução dos enquitraídeos dependem da densidade inicial de organismos, especialmente na 2ª geração. Entretanto, nos SMSs expostos a Cu, a densidade inicial é menos importante nos resultados finais. O aumento da temperatura alterou majoritariamente a fase inicial de crescimento populacional. Em períodos mais longos, a abundância estabilizou tornando-se menos influenciada pelas temperaturas. Períodos longos de exposição reforçaram os efeitos da temperatura, como por ex: diversas espécies foram similarmente afetadas a 29 ou 26°C quando expostas durante 28 ou 61 dias respectivamente. De forma geral, o Cu reduziu a abundância da maioria das espécies ao longo do tempo, com poucas exceções. Os resultados da decomposição da matéria orgânica (MO) e atividade alimentar associaram-se com a abundância de organismos em baixas temperaturas (10-23°C). Entretanto, com o aumento das temperaturas (19-29°C), este comportamento não foi claro e a abundância de espécies e atividade alimentar diminuíram enquanto a decomposição da MO aumentou. Além disso, os resultados observados nos SMSs foram confirmados no campo. Mais especificamente, alterações ocorreram na fase de crescimento (correspondente à Primavera) e a exposição ao Cu diminuiu os efeitos da temperatura. Metodologias mais complexas (ex: mais gerações e experiências com múltiplas espécies) apresentam muitos benefícios, mas também proporcionam respostas mais complexas, as quais exigem um maior “peso” de evidências para serem comprovadas.

Characterisation of ZG16p, a unique mammalian lectin from pancreatic zymogen granules

The mechanisms of secretory granule biogenesis and regulated secretion of digestive enzymes in pancreatic acinar cells are still not well understood. To shed light on these processes, which are of biological and clinical importance (e.g., pancreatitis), a better molecular understanding of the components of the granule membrane, their functions and interactions is required. The application of proteomics has largely contributed to the identification of novel zymogen granule (ZG) proteins but was not yet accompanied by a better characterization of their functions. In this study we aimed at a) isolation and identification of novel membrane-associated ZG proteins; b) characterization of the biochemical properties and function of the secretory lectin ZG16p, a membrane-associated protein; c) exploring the potential of ZG16p as a new tool to label the endolysosomal compartment. First, we have performed a suborganellar proteomics approach by combining protein analysis by 2D-PAGE and identification by mass spectrometry, which has led to the identification of novel peripheral ZGM proteins with proteoglycan-binding properties (e.g., chymase, PpiB). Then, we have unveiled new molecular properties and (multiple) functions of the secretory lectin ZG16p. ZG16p is a unique mammalian lectin with glycan and proteoglycan binding properties. Here, I revealed for the first time that ZG16p is highly protease resistant by developing an enterokinase-digestion assay. In addition I revealed that ZG16p binds to a high molecular weight complex at the ZGM (which is also protease resistant) and forms highly stable dimers. In light of these findings I suggest that ZG16p is a key component of a predicted submembranous granule matrix attached to the luminal side of the ZGM that fulfils important functions during sorting and packaging of zymogens. ZG16p, may act as a linker between the matrix and aggregated zymogens due to dimer formation. Furthermore, ZG16p protease resistance might be of higher importance after secretion since it is known that ZG16p binds to pathogenic fungi in the gut. I have further investigated the role of ZG16p binding motifs in its targeting to ZG in AR42J cells, a pancreatic model system. Point mutations of the glycan and the proteoglycan binding motifs did not inhibit the targeting of ZG16p to ZG in AR42J cells. I have also demonstrated that when ZG16p is present in the cytoplasm it interacts with and modulates the endo-lysosomal compartment. Since it is known that impaired autophagy due to lysosomal malfunction is involved in the course of pancreatitis, a potential role of ZG16p in pancreatitis is discussed.

Structural analysis of glycans and development of microarrays from Helcobacter pylori cell surface glycome

Helicobacter pylori is a bacterial pathogen that affects more than half of the world’s population with gastro-intestinal diseases and is associated with gastric cancer. The cell surface of H. pylori is decorated with lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) composed of three distinct regions: a variable polysaccharide moiety (O-chain), a structurally conserved core oligosaccharide, and a lipid A region that anchors the LPS to the cell membrane. The O-chain of H. pylori LPS, exhibits unique oligosaccharide structures, such as Lewis (Le) antigens, similar to those present in the gastric mucosa and are involved in interactions with the host. Glucan, heptoglycan, and riban domains are present in the outer core region of some H. pylori LPSs. Amylose-like glycans and mannans are also constituents of some H. pylori strains, possibly co-expressed with LPSs. The complexity of H. pylori LPSs has hampered the establishment of accurate structure-function relationships in interactions with the host, and the design of carbohydrate-based therapeutics, such as vaccines. Carbohydrate microarrays are recent powerful and sensitive tools for studying carbohydrate antigens and, since their emergence, are providing insights into the function of carbohydrates and their involvement in pathogen-host interactions. The major goals of this thesis were the structural analysis of LPSs from H. pylori strains isolated from gastric biopsies of symptomatic Portuguese patients and the construction of a novel pathogen carbohydrate microarray of these LPSs (H. pylori LPS microarray) for interaction studies with proteins. LPSs were extracted from the cell surface of five H. pylori clinical isolates and one NCTC strain (26695) by phenol/water method, fractionated by size exclusion chromatography and analysed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The oligosaccharides released after mild acid treatment of the LPS were analysed by electrospray mass spectrometry. In addition to the conserved core oligosaccharide moieties, structural analyses revealed the presence of type-2 Lex and Ley antigens and N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc) sequences, typically found in H. pylori strains. Also, the presence of O-6 linked glucose residues, particularly in LPSs from strains 2191 and NCTC 26695, pointed out to the expression of a 6-glucan. Other structural domains, namely ribans, composed of O-2 linked ribofuranose residues were observed in the LPS of most of H. pylori clinical isolates. For the LPS from strain 14382, large amounts of O-3 linked galactose units, pointing to the occurrence of a galactan, a domain recently identified in the LPS of another H. pylori strain. A particular feature to the LPSs from strains 2191 and CI-117 was the detection of large amounts of O-4 linked N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residues, suggesting the presence of chitin-like glycans, which to our knowledge have not been described for H. pylori strains. For the construction of the H. pylori LPS microarray, the structurally analysed LPSs, as well as LPS-derived oligosaccharide fractions, prepared as neoglycolipid (NGL) probes were noncovalently immobilized onto nitrocellulosecoated glass slides. These were printed together with NGLs of selected sequence defined oligosaccharides, bacterial LPSs and polysaccharides. The H. pylori LPS microarray was probed for recognition with carbohydratebinding proteins (CBPs) of known specificity. These included Le and blood group-related monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), plant lectins, a carbohydratebinding module (CBM) and the mammalian immune receptors DC-SIGN and Dectin-1. The analysis of these CBPs provided new information that complemented the structural analyses and was valuable in the quality control of the constructed microarray. Microarray analysis revealed the occurrence of type-2 Lex and Ley, but not type-1 Lea or Leb antigens, supporting the results obtained in the structural analysis. Furthermore, the H. pylori LPSs were recognised by DC-SIGN, a mammalian lectin known to interact with this bacterium through fucosylated Le epitopes expressed in its LPSs. The -fucose-specific lectin UEA-I, showed restricted binding to probes containing type-2 blood group H sequence and to the LPSs from strains CI-117 and 14382. The presence of H-type-2, as well Htype- 1 in the LPSs from these strains, was confirmed using specific mAbs. Although H-type-1 determinant has been reported for H. pylori LPSs, this is the first report of the presence of H-type-2 determinant. Microarray analysis also revealed that plant lectins known to bind 4-linked GlcNAc chitin oligosaccharide sequences bound H. pylori LPSs. STL, which exhibited restricted and strong binding to 4GlcNAc tri- and pentasaccharides, differentially recognised the LPS from the strain CI-117. The chitin sequences recognised in the LPS could be internal, as no binding was detected to this LPS with WGA, known to be specific for nonreducing terminal of 4GlcNAc sequence. Analyses of the H. pylori LPSs by SDS-PAGE and Western blot with STL provided further evidence for the presence of these novel domains in the O-chain region of this LPS. H. pylori LPS microarray was also applied to analysis of two human sera. The first was from a case infected with H. pylori (H. pylori+ CI-5) and the second was from a non-infected control.The analysis revealed a higher IgG-reactivity towards H. pylori LPSs in the H. pylori+ serum, than the control serum. A specific IgG response was observed to the LPS isolated from the CI-5 strain, which caused the infection. The present thesis has contributed to extension of current knowledge on chemical structures of LPS from H. pylori clinical isolates. Furthermore, the H. pylori LPS microarray constructed enabled the study of interactions with host proteins and showed promise as a tool in serological studies of H. pyloriinfected individuals. Thus, it is anticipated that the use of these complementary approaches may contribute to a better understanding of the molecular complexity of the LPSs and their role in pathogenesis.