Nanosensor for assessing the risk of a cardiovascular disease

The incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) has been increasing according to the European and global statistics. Thus, the development of new analytical devices, such as biosensors for assessing the risk of CVD could become a valuable approach for the improvement of healthcare service. In latest years, the nanotechnology has provided new materials with improved electronic properties which have an important contribution in the transduction mechanism of biosensors. Thus, in this thesis, biosensors based on field effect transistors with single-walled carbon nanotubes (NTFET) were developed for the detection of C-reactive protein (CRP) in clinical samples, that is, blood serum and saliva from a group of control patients and a group of CVD risk patients. CRP is an acute-phase protein, which is commonly known as the best validated biomarker for the assessment of CVD, the single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) were applied as transduction components, and the immunoreaction (interaction between the CRP antigen and the antibodies specific to CRP) was used as the mechanism of molecular recognition for the label-free detection of CRP. After the microfabrication of field effect transistors (FET), the screening of the most important variables for the dispersion of SWCNT, the assemblage of NTFET, and their application on standard solutions of CRP, it was found that NTFET respond accurately to CRP both in saliva and in serum samples, since similar CRP levels were found with the NTFET and the traditional methodology (ELISA technique). On the other hand, a strong correlation between salivary and serum CRP was found with NTFET, which means that saliva could be used, based on non-invasive sampling, as an alternative fluid to blood serum. It was also shown that NTFET could discriminate control patients from CVD risk patients, allowing the determination of a cut-off value for salivary CRP of 1900 ng L-1, which corresponds to the well established cut-off of 3 mg L-1 for CRP in serum, constituting an important finding for the possible establishment of a new range of CRP levels based on saliva. According to the data provided from the volunteer patients regarding their lipoprotein profile and lifestyle factors, it was concluded that the control and the CVD risk patients could be separated taking into account the various risk factors established in literature as strong contributors for developing a CVD, such as triglycerides, serum CRP, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, body mass index, Framingham risk score, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus. Thus, this work could provide an additional contribution to the understanding of the association of biomarkers levels in serum and saliva samples, and above all, cost-effective, rapid, label-free, and disposable NTFET were developed, based on a noninvasive sampling, for the assessment of CVD risk, thus constituting a potential point-of-care technology.

Projecto de receptores integrados de banda larga

O presente trabalho tem como objectivo o estudo e projecto de receptores optimizados para sistemas de comunicações por fibra óptica de muito alto débito (10Gb/s e 40Gb/s), com a capacidade integrada de compensação adaptativa pós-detecção da distorção originada pela característica de dispersão cromática e de polarização do canal óptico. O capítulo 1 detalha o âmbito de aplicabilidade destes receptores em sistemas de comunicações ópticas com multiplexagem no comprimento de onda (WDM) actuais. O capítulo apresenta ainda os objectivos e principais contribuições desta tese. O capítulo 2 detalha o projecto de um amplificador pós-detecção adequado para sistemas de comunicação ópticos com taxa de transmissão de 10Gb/s. São discutidas as topologias mais adequadas para amplificadores pós detecção e apresentados os critérios que ditaram a escolha da topologia de transimpedância bem como as condições que permitem optimizar o seu desempenho em termos de largura de banda, ganho e ruído. Para além disso são abordados aspectos relacionados com a implementação física em tecnologia monolítica de microondas (MMIC), focando em particular o impacto destes no desempenho do circuito, como é o caso do efeito dos componentes extrínsecos ao circuito monolítico, em particular as ligações por fio condutor do monólito ao circuito externo. Este amplificador foi projectado e produzido em tecnologia pHEMT de Arsenieto de Gálio e implementado em tecnologia MMIC. O protótipo produzido foi caracterizado na fábrica, ainda na bolacha em que foi produzido (on-wafer) tendo sido obtidos dados de caracterização de 80 circuitos protótipo. Estes foram comparados com resultados de simulação e com desempenho do protótipo montado num veículo de teste. O capítulo 3 apresenta o projecto de dois compensadores eléctricos ajustáveis com a capacidade de mitigar os efeitos da dispersão cromática e da dispersão de polarização em sistemas ópticos com débito binário de 10Gb/s e 40Gb/s, com modulação em banda lateral dupla e banda lateral única. Duas topologias possíveis para este tipo de compensadores (a topologia Feed-Forward Equalizer e a topologia Decision Feedback Equaliser) são apresentadas e comparadas. A topologia Feed-Forward Equaliser que serviu de base para a implementação dos compensadores apresentados é analisada com mais detalhe sendo propostas alterações que permitem a sua implementação prática. O capítulo apresenta em detalhe a forma como estes compensadores foram implementados como circuitos distribuídos em tecnologia MMIC sendo propostas duas formas de implementar as células de ganho variável: com recurso à configuração cascode ou com recurso à configuração célula de Gilbert. São ainda apresentados resultados de simulação e experimentais (dos protótipos produzidos) que permitem tirar algumas conclusões sobre o desempenho das células de ganho com as duas configurações distintas. Por fim, o capítulo inclui ainda resultados de desempenho dos compensadores testados como compensadores de um sinal eléctrico afectado de distorção. No capítulo 4 é feita uma análise do impacto da modulação em banda lateral dupla (BLD) em comparação com a modulação em banda lateral única (BLU) num sistema óptico afectado de dispersão cromática e de polarização. Mostra-se que com modulação em BLU, como não há batimento entre portadoras das duas bandas laterais em consequência do processo quadrático de detecção e há preservação da informação da distorção cromática do canal (na fase do sinal), o uso deste tipo de modulação em sistemas de comunicação óptica permite maior tolerância à dispersão cromática e os compensadores eléctricos são muito mais eficientes. O capítulo apresenta ainda resultados de teste dos compensadores desenvolvidos em cenários experimentais de laboratório representativos de sistemas ópticos a 10Gb/s e 40Gb/s. Os resultados permitem comparar o desempenho destes cenários sem e com compensação eléctrica optimizada, para os casos de modulação em BLU e em BLD, e considerando ainda os efeitos da dispersão na velocidade de grupo e do atraso de grupo diferencial. Mostra-se que a modulação BLU em conjunto com compensação adaptativa eléctrica permite um desempenho muito superior á modulação em BLD largamente utilizada nos sistemas de comunicações actuais. Por fim o capítulo 5 sintetiza e apresenta as principais conclusões deste trabalho.

Ferroelectric : CNTs structures fabrication for advanced functional nano devices

This work is about the combination of functional ferroelectric oxides with Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes for microelectronic applications, as for example potential 3 Dimensional (3D) Non Volatile Ferroelectric Random Access Memories (NVFeRAM). Miniaturized electronics are ubiquitous now. The drive to downsize electronics has been spurred by needs of more performance into smaller packages at lower costs. But the trend of electronics miniaturization challenges board assembly materials, processes, and reliability. Semiconductor device and integrated circuit technology, coupled with its associated electronic packaging, forms the backbone of high-performance miniaturized electronic systems. However, as size decreases and functionalization increases in the modern electronics further size reduction is getting difficult; below a size limit the signal reliability and device performance deteriorate. Hence miniaturization of siliconbased electronics has limitations. On this background the Road Map for Semiconductor Industry (ITRS) suggests since 2011 alternative technologies, designated as More than Moore; being one of them based on carbon (carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene) [1]. CNTs with their unique performance and three dimensionality at the nano-scale have been regarded as promising elements for miniaturized electronics [2]. CNTs are tubular in geometry and possess a unique set of properties, including ballistic electron transportation and a huge current caring capacity, which make them of great interest for future microelectronics [2]. Indeed CNTs might have a key role in the miniaturization of Non Volatile Ferroelectric Random Access Memories (NVFeRAM). Moving from a traditional two dimensional (2D) design (as is the case of thin films) to a 3D structure (based on a tridimensional arrangement of unidimensional structures) will result in the high reliability and sensing of the signals due to the large contribution from the bottom electrode. One way to achieve this 3D design is by using CNTs. Ferroelectrics (FE) are spontaneously polarized and can have high dielectric constants and interesting pyroelectric, piezoelectric, and electrooptic properties, being a key application of FE electronic memories. However, combining CNTs with FE functional oxides is challenging. It starts with materials compatibility, since crystallization temperature of FE and oxidation temperature of CNTs may overlap. In this case low temperature processing of FE is fundamental. Within this context in this work a systematic study on the fabrication of CNTs - FE structures using low cost low temperature methods was carried out. The FE under study are comprised of lead zirconate titanate (Pb1-xZrxTiO3, PZT), barium titanate (BaTiO3, BT) and bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3, BFO). The various aspects related to the fabrication, such as effect on thermal stability of MWCNTs, FE phase formation in presence of MWCNTs and interfaces between the CNTs/FE are addressed in this work. The ferroelectric response locally measured by Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM) clearly evidenced that even at low processing temperatures FE on CNTs retain its ferroelectric nature. The work started by verifying the thermal decomposition behavior under different conditions of the multiwall CNTs (MWCNTs) used in this work. It was verified that purified MWCNTs are stable up to 420 ºC in air, as no weight loss occurs under non isothermal conditions, but morphology changes were observed for isothermal conditions at 400 ºC by Raman spectroscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). In oxygen-rich atmosphere MWCNTs started to oxidized at 200 ºC. However in argon-rich one and under a high heating rate MWCNTs remain stable up to 1300 ºC with a minimum sublimation. The activation energy for the decomposition of MWCNTs in air was calculated to lie between 80 and 108 kJ/mol. These results are relevant for the fabrication of MWCNTs – FE structures. Indeed we demonstrate that PZT can be deposited by sol gel at low temperatures on MWCNTs. And particularly interesting we prove that MWCNTs decrease the temperature and time for formation of PZT by ~100 ºC commensurate with a decrease in activation energy from 68±15 kJ/mol to 27±2 kJ/mol. As a consequence, monophasic PZT was obtained at 575 ºC for MWCNTs - PZT whereas for pure PZT traces of pyrochlore were still present at 650 ºC, where PZT phase formed due to homogeneous nucleation. The piezoelectric nature of MWCNTs - PZT synthesised at 500 ºC for 1 h was proved by PFM. In the continuation of this work we developed a low cost methodology of coating MWCNTs using a hybrid sol-gel / hydrothermal method. In this case the FE used as a proof of concept was BT. BT is a well-known lead free perovskite used in many microelectronic applications. However, synthesis by solid state reaction is typically performed around 1100 to 1300 ºC what jeopardizes the combination with MWCNTs. We also illustrate the ineffectiveness of conventional hydrothermal synthesis in this process due the formation of carbonates, namely BaCO3. The grown MWCNTs - BT structures are ferroelectric and exhibit an electromechanical response (15 pm/V). These results have broad implications since this strategy can also be extended to other compounds of materials with high crystallization temperatures. In addition the coverage of MWCNTs with FE can be optimized, in this case with non covalent functionalization of the tubes, namely with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). MWCNTs were used as templates to grow, in this case single phase multiferroic BFO nanorods. This work shows that the use of nitric solvent results in severe damages of the MWCNTs layers that results in the early oxidation of the tubes during the annealing treatment. It was also observed that the use of nitric solvent results in the partial filling of MWCNTs with BFO due to the low surface tension (<119 mN/m) of the nitric solution. The opening of the caps and filling of the tubes occurs simultaneously during the refluxing step. Furthermore we verified that MWCNTs have a critical role in the fabrication of monophasic BFO; i.e. the oxidation of CNTs during the annealing process causes an oxygen deficient atmosphere that restrains the formation of Bi2O3 and monophasic BFO can be obtained. The morphology of the obtained BFO nano structures indicates that MWCNTs act as template to grow 1D structure of BFO. Magnetic measurements on these BFO nanostructures revealed a week ferromagnetic hysteresis loop with a coercive field of 956 Oe at 5 K. We also exploited the possible use of vertically-aligned multiwall carbon nanotubes (VA-MWCNTs) as bottom electrodes for microelectronics, for example for memory applications. As a proof of concept BiFeO3 (BFO) films were in-situ deposited on the surface of VA-MWCNTs by RF (Radio Frequency) magnetron sputtering. For in situ deposition temperature of 400 ºC and deposition time up to 2 h, BFO films cover the VA-MWCNTs and no damage occurs either in the film or MWCNTs. In spite of the macroscopic lossy polarization behaviour, the ferroelectric nature, domain structure and switching of these conformal BFO films was verified by PFM. A week ferromagnetic ordering loop was proved for BFO films on VA-MWCNTs having a coercive field of 700 Oe. Our systematic work is a significant step forward in the development of 3D memory cells; it clearly demonstrates that CNTs can be combined with FE oxides and can be used, for example, as the next 3D generation of FERAMs, not excluding however other different applications in microelectronics.