Population genetics of C. Maenas : oceanography and larval dispersal

Decifrar a complexa interacção entre os ciclos de vida de espécies marinhas e a oceanografia revela-se fundamental para a compreensão do fluxo genético e da conectividade no meio marinho. Nas espécies marinhas com desenvolvimento indirecto o fluxo de genes entre populações depende da distância que separa as populações, bem como da interacção entre a duração do desenvolvimento larvar, do comportamento das larvas e dos padrões de circulação oceânica. A conectividade larvar influencia uma variedade de processos como a dinâmica de stocks e de populações, a distribuição e limites geográficos das espécies, a estrutura genética das populações e a dispersão de espécies invasivas e reveste-se consequentemente de uma importância fundamental na identificação das unidades populacionais evolucionariamente relevantes e para a gestão e conservação marinhas. Os marcadores genéticos e os Modelos Individuais Acoplados a Modelos Físico-Biológicos (“ICPBMs”) são actualmente ferramentas fundamentais para o estudo dos padrões de dispersão larvar e para avaliar o nível de conectividade populacional. A presente tese respeita à avaliação das escalas espaciais de conectividade de populações de uma espécie costeira, o caranguejo Carcinus maenas, e utiliza conjuntamente informação de marcadores genéticos, análise de séries temporais de fornecimento de larvas e um modelo numérico de circulação oceânica. O primeiro capítulo introduz a temática da conectividade em espécies marinhas e inclui algumas referências aos métodos moleculares, analíticos e de modelação seguidos ao longo da tese. Através da utilização de múltiplas ferramentas – avaliação da estrutura genética geográfica de C. maenas na sua distribuição nativa com recurso a marcadores de DNA (microssatélites) (Capítulo 2), avaliação da estrutura genética temporal das larvas que formam os eventos de fornecimento larvar à Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal (Capítulo 3), descrição da variabilidade inter-anual do fornecimento larvar à Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal (Capítulo 4) e validação de um modelo ICPBM que descreve os padrões observados de fornecimento (Capítulo 5) – esta tese espera poder contribuir para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos que regulam o fluxo de genes e a conectividade entre populações de organismos marinhos. No Capítulo 6 são apresentadas as principais conclusões da investigação. A análise genética com recurso a microssatélites indicou que as populações de C. maenas são geneticamente homogéneas ao longo de várias centenas de km, dentro da distribuição nativa da espécie. Paralelamente, não foram encontrados indícios da existência de reprodução por “sweepstakes” em C. maenas de populações da costa oeste da Península Ibérica, visto que não se obtiveram diferenças genéticas significativas entre os eventos larvares. Também não se encontrou qualquer estrutura familiar entre as larvas que formam cada episódio de fornecimento, e não houve nenhuma redução significativa da variabilidade genética das larvas quando comparada com a de caranguejos adultos. A análise de séries temporais de suprimento de larvas na Ria de Aveiro em cinco anos estudados indica que este é um fenómeno episódico e variável, sendo os maiores episódios de fornecimento coincidentes com as marés vivas e acentuados por fortes ventos de sul. O modelo ICPBM foi validado com sucesso e parece fornecer uma estimativa realística das escalas espaciais e temporais de dispersão larvar, de acordo com as observações da estrutura genética e da ausência de reprodução por “sweepstake” em C. maenas da costa oeste da Península Ibérica

Privacy in next generation networks

In the modern society, communications and digital transactions are becoming the norm rather than the exception. As we allow networked computing devices into our every-day actions, we build a digital lifestyle where networks and devices enrich our interactions. However, as we move our information towards a connected digital environment, privacy becomes extremely important as most of our personal information can be found in the network. This is especially relevant as we design and adopt next generation networks that provide ubiquitous access to services and content, increasing the impact and pervasiveness of existing networks. The environments that provide widespread connectivity and services usually rely on network protocols that have few privacy considerations, compromising user privacy. The presented work focuses on the network aspects of privacy, considering how network protocols threaten user privacy, especially on next generation networks scenarios. We target the identifiers that are present in each network protocol and support its designed function. By studying how the network identifiers can compromise user privacy, we explore how these threats can stem from the identifier itself and from relationships established between several protocol identifiers. Following the study focused on identifiers, we show that privacy in the network can be explored along two dimensions: a vertical dimension that establishes privacy relationships across several layers and protocols, reaching the user, and a horizontal dimension that highlights the threats exposed by individual protocols, usually confined to a single layer. With these concepts, we outline an integrated perspective on privacy in the network, embracing both vertical and horizontal interactions of privacy. This approach enables the discussion of several mechanisms to address privacy threats on individual layers, leading to architectural instantiations focused on user privacy. We also show how the different dimensions of privacy can provide insight into the relationships that exist in a layered network stack, providing a potential path towards designing and implementing future privacy-aware network architectures.

A construção da identidade em ambientes digitais: estudo de caso sobre a construção da identidade online no Sapo Campus e em ambientes informais

O reconhecimento da dimensão criativa, participativa e social da rede trouxe profundas alterações à forma como se percebem e compreendem as questões relacionadas com a identidade, a educação, a prática e o conhecimento. Num cenário caraterizado pela conectividade e pela facilidade de acesso a pessoas e conteúdos, a rede oferece aos indivíduos um espaço onde podem interagir, trabalhar na sua aprendizagem, trocar experiências e construir uma identidade e reputação acessíveis a toda a comunidade. Quando se torna praticamente impossível permanecer fora do mundo digital e, consequentemente, da produção de uma identidade online (Costa e Torres, 2011; Warburton, 2009), a presença construída pelo indivíduo na rede surge como um currículo vitae ativo e dinâmico, revelador não apenas das competências adquiridas e certificadas em contextos de aprendizagem formais como daquelas desenvolvidas pela interação com os pares, pela partilha e pela comunicação. Partindo da análise da utilização de uma plataforma suportada institucionalmente (i.e. SAPO Campus), o presente trabalho de investigação tem como principal objetivo a análise e caraterização da construção da identidade online de um grupo de alunos do Mestrado em Comunicação Multimédia da Universidade de Aveiro num espaço providenciado pela instituição de ensino que frequentam. Com recurso a inquéritos por questionário, entrevistas em profundidade (realizadas aos participantes no estudo e a profissionais da área da comunicação e gestão de carreiras) e observação direta (análise quantitativa e qualitativa dos conteúdos publicados pelos participantes no SAPO Campus e em duas redes informais), procurou-se ainda caraterizar e analisar a identidade construída em espaços formais e informais, e aferir a importância – para alunos, instituição e mercado – da identidade online enquanto espaço de manifestação e divulgação de competências. Ainda que circunscrita ao contexto específico do Mestrado em Comunicação Multimédia e mais especificamente aos alunos cuja identidade online foi objeto de estudo, análise dos dados permite avançar que, de facto, os alunos estão conscientes da sua própria identidade online bem como da relevância de construir uma identidade e reputação sólidas e autênticas, que reflitam as suas competências e capacidades enquanto aprendentes e profissionais. Assim, poder-se-á avançar que no SAPO Campus os alunos estão a construir uma identidade online mais formal e cuidada, editando e selecionando os conteúdos de acordo com o contexto. Neste espaço, a maioria das publicações está diretamente relacionada com os trabalhos de investigação dos participantes, que recorrem à sua partilha nas redes informais para aumentar a visibilidade e exposição dos conteúdos publicados. Os participantes no estudo revelaram ainda valorizar o sentimento de segurança providenciado pelas tecnologias institucionais, bem como a possibilidade de construir uma identidade numa plataforma associada à sua instituição de ensino. Do estudo efetuado resultou ainda uma proposta de um modelo para a análise da identidade online, que poderá ser utilizado na análise da presença dos indivíduos em ambientes online formais e informais. Apresentando a identidade online como uma realidade assente na representação digital, na gestão da privacidade e na reputação construída na rede, o modelo foi aplicado aos dados recolhidos pelo estudo, conduzindo ao desenho de duas grandes formas de estar na rede: identidade orientada pelo contexto, e identidade orientada pelo utilizador. Quando as caraterísticas dos mundos digitais alteram a forma de produção da identidade e num cenário onde a contextualização de dados e informação assume uma importância crescente, este estudo de caso poderá contribuir para o conhecimento dos processos de construção da identidade em espaços formais e informais, da forma como os indivíduos gerem e constroem a sua identidade online, e ainda sobre a importância e o impacto da construção de uma identidade online consciente e credível para a reputação dos indivíduos e das Instituições de Ensino Superior.

Sustainable tourism in geoparks through geotourism and networking

Esta tese analisa o papel desempenhado pelos geoparques e pelo geoturismo para a sustentabilidade socio-económica e sociocultural das áreas rurais e de que forma estes contribuem para o turismo sustentável. Para esse efeito, o estudo é baseado numa extensa revisão da literatura sobre geoparques, geoturismo e turismo sustentável, bem como a atividade em rede e inovação aplicada aos geoparques registados na Rede Global de Geoparques. Com base na revisão da literatura, uma série de hipóteses são formuladas para serem depois testadas na parte empírica da tese. A população estudada constou dos geoparques registados na Rede Global de Geoparques (N = 64), em 2009, a nível internacional. O primeiro questionário investigou o papel dos geoparques no desenvolvimento rural e O segundo questionário analisou a atividade em rede entre geoparques e avaliar a taxa de conectividade da Rede Global de Geoparques e da Rede Europeia de Geoparques. A realização de entrevistas a nível local permitiram revelar os efeitos significativos e tangíveis da criação de geoparques no desenvolvimento local. Assim, foi selecionado o Qeshm Geopark (Irão) como estudo de caso, e as comunidades locais que vivem nas aldeias vizinhas do geoparque foram entrevistados. Os dados foram analisados através de softwares de apoio à análise quantitativa, qualitativa e de redes, tais como o SPSS, NVivo e Pajek, respetivamente. Este último foi utilizado para produzir uma imagem da rede de relacionamento social entre os geoparques entrevistados. Com base nesses resultados uma série de implicações são sugeridas, bem como algumas recomendações para futuras pesquisas. Para além disso, a fim de investigar o papel do estabelecimento do Qeshm Geopark para o desenvolvimento rural, o trabalho de campo envolveu ainda entrevistas face a face com as comunidades locais e três matrizes SWOT foram projetadas para uma melhor gestão dos geoparques. Utilizando ambas as abordagens qualitativa e quantitativa, esta tese visa contribuir para uma melhor compreensão do novo nicho de mercado que constitui o geoturismo, bem como dos novos destinos desenvolvidos em torno dos geoparque.

Communication middleware for the future mobile internet

A evolução constante em novas tecnologias que providenciam suporte à forma como os nossos dispositivos se ligam, bem como a forma como utilizamos diferentes capacidades e serviços on-line, criou um conjunto sem precedentes de novos desafios que motivam o desenvolvimento de uma recente área de investigação, denominada de Internet Futura. Nesta nova área de investigação, novos aspectos arquiteturais estão ser desenvolvidos, os quais, através da re-estruturação de componentes nucleares subjacentesa que compõem a Internet, progride-a de uma forma capaz de não são fazer face a estes novos desafios, mas também de a preparar para os desafios de amanhã. Aspectos chave pertencendo a este conjunto de desafios são os ambientes de rede heterogéneos compostos por diferentes tipos de redes de acesso, a cada vez maior mudança do tráfego peer-to-peer (P2P) como o tipo de tráfego mais utilizado na Internet, a orquestração de cenários da Internet das Coisas (IoT) que exploram mecanismos de interação Maquinaa-Maquina (M2M), e a utilização de mechanismos centrados na informação (ICN). Esta tese apresenta uma nova arquitetura capaz de simultaneamente fazer face a estes desafios, evoluindo os procedimentos de conectividade e entidades envolvidas, através da adição de uma camada de middleware, que age como um mecanismo de gestão de controlo avançado. Este mecanismo de gestão de controlo aproxima as entidades de alto nível (tais como serviços, aplicações, entidades de gestão de mobilidade, operações de encaminhamento, etc.) com as componentes das camadas de baixo nível (por exemplo, camadas de ligação, sensores e atuadores), permitindo uma otimização conjunta dos procedimentos de ligação subjacentes. Os resultados obtidos não só sublinham a flexibilidade dos mecanismos que compoem a arquitetura, mas também a sua capacidade de providenciar aumentos de performance quando comparados com outras soluÇÕes de funcionamento especÍfico, enquanto permite um maior leque de cenáios e aplicações.

Modeling the Western Iberian margin circulation: present and future

The purpose of this work is to carry out a comprehensive study on the Western Iberian Margin (WIM) circulation my means of numerical modeling, and to postulate what this circulation will be in the future. The adopted approach was the development of a regional ocean model configuration with high resolution, capable of reproducing the largeand small-scale dynamics of the coastal transition zone. Four numerical experiences were carried out according to these objectives: (1) a climatological run, in order to study the system’s seasonal behavior and its mean state; (2) a run forced with real winds and fluxes for period 2001-2011 in order to study the interannual variability of the system; (3) a run forced with mean fields from Global Climate Models (GCMs) for the present, in order to validate GCMs as adequate forcing for regional ocean modeling; (4) a similar run (3) for period 2071-2100, in order to assess possible consequences of a future climate scenario on the hydrography and dynamics of the WIM. Furthermore, two Lagrangian particle studies were carried out: one in order to trace the origin of the upwelled waters along the WIM; the other in order to portrait the patterns of larval dispersal, accumulation and connectivity. The numerical configuration proved to be adequate in the reproduction of the system’s mean state, seasonal characterization and an interannual variability study. There is prevalence of poleward flow at the slope, which coexists with the upwelling jet during summer, although there is evidence of its shifting offshore, and which is associated with the Mediterranean Water flow at deeper levels, suggesting a barotropic character. From the future climate scenario essay, the following conclusions were drawn: there is general warming and freshening of upper level waters; there is still poleward tendency, and despite the upwellingfavorable winds strengthening in summer the respective coastal band becomes more restricted in width and depth. In what concerns larval connectivity and dispersion along the WIM, diel vertical migration was observed to increase recruitment throughout the domain, and while smooth coastlines are better suppliers, there is higher accumulation where the topography is rougher.

Inter layer and cooperative design strategies for green mobile networks

The promise of a truly mobile experience is to have the freedom to roam around anywhere and not be bound to a single location. However, the energy required to keep mobile devices connected to the network over extended periods of time quickly dissipates. In fact, energy is a critical resource in the design of wireless networks since wireless devices are usually powered by batteries. Furthermore, multi-standard mobile devices are allowing users to enjoy higher data rates with ubiquitous connectivity. However, the bene ts gained from multiple interfaces come at a cost in terms of energy consumption having profound e ect on the mobile battery lifetime and standby time. This concern is rea rmed by the fact that battery lifetime is one of the top reasons why consumers are deterred from using advanced multimedia services on their mobile on a frequent basis. In order to secure market penetration for next generation services energy e ciency needs to be placed at the forefront of system design. However, despite recent e orts, energy compliant features in legacy technologies are still in its infancy, and new disruptive architectures coupled with interdisciplinary design approaches are required in order to not only promote the energy gain within a single protocol layer, but to enhance the energy gain from a holistic perspective. A promising approach is cooperative smart systems, that in addition to exploiting context information, are entities that are able to form a coalition and cooperate in order to achieve a common goal. Migrating from this baseline, this thesis investigates how these technology paradigm can be applied towards reducing the energy consumption in mobile networks. In addition, we introduce an additional energy saving dimension by adopting an interlayer design so that protocol layers are designed to work in synergy with the host system, rather than independently, for harnessing energy. In this work, we exploit context information, cooperation and inter-layer design for developing new energy e cient and technology agnostic building blocks for mobile networks. These technology enablers include energy e cient node discovery and short-range cooperation for energy saving in mobile handsets, complemented by energy-aware smart scheduling for promoting energy saving on the network side. Analytical and simulations results were obtained, and veri ed in the lab on a real hardware testbed. Results have shown that up to 50% energy saving could be obtained.

Seamless integration of heterogeneous networks in multicast environments

Nowadays, communication environments are already characterized by a myriad of competing and complementary technologies that aim to provide an ubiquitous connectivity service. Next Generation Networks need to hide this heterogeneity by providing a new abstraction level, while simultaneously be aware of the underlying technologies to deliver richer service experiences to the end-user. Moreover, the increasing interest for group-based multimedia services followed by their ever growing resource demands and network dynamics, has been boosting the research towards more scalable and exible network control approaches. The work developed in this Thesis enables such abstraction and exploits the prevailing heterogeneity in favor of a context-aware network management and adaptation. In this scope, we introduce a novel hierarchical control framework with self-management capabilities that enables the concept of Abstract Multiparty Trees (AMTs) to ease the control of multiparty content distribution throughout heterogeneous networks. A thorough evaluation of the proposed multiparty transport control framework was performed in the scope of this Thesis, assessing its bene ts in terms of network selection, delivery tree recon guration and resource savings. Moreover, we developed an analytical study to highlight the scalability of the AMT concept as well as its exibility in large scale networks and group sizes. To prove the feasibility and easy deployment characteristic of the proposed control framework, we implemented a proof-of-concept demonstrator that comprehends the main control procedures conceptually introduced. Its outcomes highlight a good performance of the multiparty content distribution tree control, including its local and global recon guration. In order to endow the AMT concept with the ability to guarantee the best service experience by the end-user, we integrate in the control framework two additional QoE enhancement approaches. The rst employs the concept of Network Coding to improve the robustness of the multiparty content delivery, aiming at mitigating the impact of possible packet losses in the end-user service perception. The second approach relies on a machine learning scheme to autonomously determine at each node the expected QoE towards a certain destination. This knowledge is then used by di erent QoE-aware network management schemes that, jointly, maximize the overall users' QoE. The performance and scalability of the control procedures developed, aided by the context and QoE-aware mechanisms, show the advantages of the AMT concept and the proposed hierarchical control strategy for the multiparty content distribution with enhanced service experience. Moreover we also prove the feasibility of the solution in a practical environment, and provide future research directions that bene t the evolved control framework and make it commercially feasible.

Decentralizing IP mobility management in future networks

The massive adoption of sophisticated mobile devices and applications led to the increase of mobile data in the last decade, which it is expected to continue. This increase of mobile data negatively impacts the network planning and dimension, since core networks are heavy centralized. Mobile operators are investigating atten network architectures that distribute the responsibility of providing connectivity and mobility, in order to improve the network scalability and performance. Moreover, service providers are moving the content servers closer to the user, in order to ensure high availability and performance of content delivery. Besides the e orts to overcome the explosion of mobile data, current mobility management models are heavy centralized to ensure reachability and session continuity to the users connected to the network. Nowadays, deployed architectures have a small number of centralized mobility anchors managing the mobile data and the mobility context of millions of users, which introduces issues related to performance and scalability that require costly network mechanisms. The mobility management needs to be rethought out-of-the box to cope with atten network architectures and distributed content servers closer to the user, which is the purpose of the work developed in this Thesis. The Thesis starts with a characterization of mobility management into well-de ned functional blocks, their interaction and potential grouping. The decentralized mobility management is studied through analytical models and simulations, in which di erent mobility approaches distinctly distribute the mobility management functionalities through the network. The outcome of this study showed that decentralized mobility management brings advantages. Hence, it was proposed a novel distributed and dynamic mobility management approach, which is exhaustively evaluated through analytical models, simulations and testbed experiments. The proposed approach is also integrated with seamless horizontal handover mechanisms, as well as evaluated in vehicular environments. The mobility mechanisms are also speci ed for multihomed scenarios, in order to provide data o oading with IP mobility from cellular to other access networks. In the pursuing of the optimized mobile routing path, a novel network-based strategy for localized mobility is addressed, in which a replication binding system is deployed in the mobility anchors distributed through the access routers and gateways. Finally, we go further in the mobility anchoring subject, presenting a context-aware adaptive IP mobility anchoring model that dynamically assigns the mobility anchors that provide the optimized routing path to a session, based on the user and network context. The integration of dynamic and distributed concepts in the mobility management, such as context-aware adaptive mobility anchoring and dynamic mobility support, allow the optimization of network resources and the improvement of user experience. The overall outcome demonstrates that decentralized mobility management is a promising direction, hence, its ideas should be taken into account by mobile operators in the deployment of future networks.

Comparison of different methods to detect genetic barriers in a small mammal population

Habitat fragmentation and the consequently the loss of connectivity between populations can reduce the individuals interchange and gene flow, increasing the chances of inbreeding, and the increase the risk of local extinction. Landscape genetics is providing more and better tools to identify genetic barriers.. To our knowledge, no comparison of methods in terms of consistency has been made with observed data and species with low dispersal ability. The aim of this study is to examine the consistency of the results of five methods to detect barriers to gene flow in a Mediterranean pine vole population Microtus duodecimcostatus: F-statistics estimations, Non-Bayesian clustering, Bayesian clustering, Boundary detection and Simple/Partial Mantel tests. All methods were consistent in detecting the stream as a non-genetic barrier. However, no consistency in results among the methods were found regarding the role of the highway as a genetic barrier. Fst, Bayesian clustering assignment test and Partial Mantel test identifyed the highway as a filter to individual interchange. The Mantel tests were the most sensitive method. Boundary detection method (Monmonier’s Algorithm) and Non-Bayesian approaches did not detect any genetic differentiation of the pine vole due to the highway. Based on our findings we recommend that the genetic barrier detection in low dispersal ability populations should be analyzed with multiple methods such as Mantel tests, Bayesian clustering approaches because they show more sensibility in those scenarios and with boundary detection methods by having the aim of detect drastic changes in a variable of interest between the closest individuals. Although simulation studies highlight the weaknesses and the strengths of each method and the factors that promote some results, tests with real data are needed to increase the effectiveness of genetic barrier detection.

Forwarding and security in vehicular networks

The growing research in vehicular network solutions provided the rise of interaction in these highly dynamic environments in the market. The developed architectures do not usually focus, however, in security aspects. Common security strategies designed for the Internet require IP. Since nodes' addresses in a vehicular network are too dynamic, such solutions would require cumbersome negotiations, which would make them unsuitable to these environments. The objective of this dissertation is to develop, and test a scalable, lightweight, layer 3 security protocol for vehicular networks, in which nodes of the network are able to set up long-term security associations with a Home Network, avoiding session renegotiations due to lack of connectivity and reduce the protocol stacking. This protocol allows to provide security independent of the nodes (vehicles) position, of its addressing and of the established path to access the Internet, allowing the mobility of vehicles and of its active sessions seamlessly without communication failures.

Distribuição de conteúdos em redes veiculares usando mecanismos de comunicação tolerantes ao atraso

The last couple of decades have been the stage for the introduction of new telecommunication networks. It is expected that in the future all types of vehicles, such as cars, buses and trucks have the ability to intercommunicate and form a vehicular network. Vehicular networks display particularities when compared to other networks due to their continuous node mobility and their wide geographical dispersion, leading to a permanent network fragmentation. Therefore, the main challenges that this type of network entails relate to the intermittent connectivity and the long and variable delay in information delivery. To address the problems related to the intermittent connectivity, a new concept was introduced – Delay Tolerant Network (DTN). This architecture is built on a Store-Carry-and-Forward (SCF) mechanism in order to assure the delivery of information when there is no end-to-end path defined. Vehicular networks support a multiplicity of services, including the transportation of non-urgent information. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the use of a DTN for the dissemination of non-urgent information is able to surpass the aforementioned challenges. The work developed focused on the use of DTNs for the dissemination of non-urgent information. This information is originated in the network service provider and should be available on mobile network terminals during a limited period of time. In order to do so, four different strategies were deployed: Random, Least Number of Hops First (LNHF), Local Rarest Bundle First (LRBF) e Local Rarest Generation First (LRGF). All of these strategies have a common goal: to disseminate content into the network in the shortest period of time and minimizing network congestion. This work also contemplates the analysis and implementation of techniques that reduce network congestion. The design, implementation and validation of the proposed strategies was divided into three stages. The first stage focused on creating a Matlab emulator for the fast implementation and strategy validation. This stage resulted in the four strategies that were afterwards implemented in the DTNs software Helix – developed in a partnership between Instituto de Telecomunicac¸˜oes (IT) and Veniam R , which are responsible for the largest operating vehicular network worldwide that is located in Oporto city. The strategies were later evaluated on an emulator that was built for the largescale testing of DTN. Both emulators account for vehicular mobility based on information previously collected from the real platform. Finally, the strategy that presented the best overall performance was tested on a real platform – in a lab environment – for concept and operability demonstration. It is possible to conclude that two of the implemented strategies (LRBF and LRGF) can be deployed in the real network and guarantee a significant delivery rate. The LRBF strategy has the best performance in terms of delivery. However, it needs to add a significant overhead to the network in order to work. In the future, tests of scalability should be conducted in a real environment in order to confirm the emulator results. The real implementation of the strategies should be accompanied by the introduction of new types of services for content distribution.