Síntese e aplicações catalíticas na funcionalização de alcanos de novos compostos com polioxometalatos e catiões orgânicos

A presente dissertação, que no seu conjunto se propõe apresentar o estudo de oxidação de compostos orgânicos com peróxido de hidrogénio na presença dos aniões do tipo Keggin, mono-substituídos por MnIII e FeIII, sob a forma de sais de tetra-n-butilamónio (TBA) e suportados em matriz de sílica funcionalizada, enquanto vital método de obtenção de importante precursores de síntese orgânica, tem na sua base o trabalho de Doutoramento desenvolvido no Departamento de Química da Universidade de Aveiro. Os compostos preparados e testados em sistema homogéneo foram os sais de TBA dos aniões de Keggin, de fórmula geral [XW11M(H2O)O39]n-, onde X = P, Si ou B e M = MnIII e FeIII. Em sistema heterogéneo foram testados diferentes materiais, que diferem entre si na matriz de sílica. Assim, fez-se a heterogeneização de [PW11Fe(H2O)O39]4- em sílica funcionalizada com catiões de césio e grupos propilamónio; [BW11Fe(H2O)O39]6- e [SiW11Fe(H2O)O39]5- foram imobilizados em sílica contendo grupos aminopropilo e o anião [PW11Mn(H2O)O39]4- foi suportado em sílica quimicamente modificada com grupos alquilamónio. Os substratos orgânicos estudados incluem o 1H-indeno, 1,2-di-hidronaftaleno, etilbenzeno, cumeno, p-cimeno, sec-butilbenzeno, 1- e 2-etilnaftaleno, cis-cicloocteno e ciclooctano. Paralelamente usaram-se alguns outros substratos, quando necessário obter esclarecimentos mecanísticos. A tese assenta numa estrutura composta por 7 capítulos. Na primeira, faz-se uma abordagem aos polioxometalatos e às reacções de oxidação de hidrocarbonetos, com particular destaque no uso de polioxometalatos em catálise oxidativa e também no uso de peróxido de hidrogénio como oxidante. A eficiência catalítica dos aniões de Keggin mono substituídos por MnIII e FeIII, em sistema homogéneo foi avaliada na oxidação de compostos orgânicos característicos, nomeadamente de ciclo-alcenilbenzenos, alquilbenzenos, ciclo-alquilbenzenos e hidrocarbonetos aromáticos policíclicos com H2O2, em acetonitrilo. Os resultados destes estudos encontram-se descritos nos capítulos dois, três e quatro desta tese. Estes compostos mostraram-se catalisadores eficientes e selectivos para a oxidação de alcanos e alcenos. O quinto capítulo da tese prossegue com a síntese, caracterização e eficiência catalítica dos polioxotungstatos referidos anteriormente imobilizados numa matriz de sílica funcionalizada com iões césio (SiO2-Cs), grupos aminopropilo (SiO2–(CH2)3NH2) ou trietilpropilamónio (SiO2-(CH2)3N(Et)3). A actividade catalítica destes compostos foi estudada utilizando o cis-cicloocteno e ciclooctano como substratos padrão. A oxidação de cis-clicoocteno originou o epóxido com 100% de selectividade e o catalisador foi reutilizado durante 4 ciclos com elevada eficiência. No sexto capítulo, são descritas as metodologias experimentais de síntese dos novos compostos, as condições catalíticas, a instrumentação e demais métodos e procedimentos usados. No sétimo e último capítulo, tecem-se as conclusões finais e apresentam-se algumas perspectivas de trabalho futuro utilizando o sistema, POM/H2O2, usado neste trabalho.

Extraction of added-value products from biomass using ionic liquids

The main purpose of this thesis is to investigate the potential of ionic liquids (ILs) as a new class of extractive solvents for added-value products from biomass. These include phenolic compounds (vanillin, gallic, syringic and vanillic acids), alkaloids (caffeine) and aminoacids (L-tryptophan). The interest on these natural compounds relies on the wide variety of relevant properties shown by those families and further application in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Aiming at developping more benign and effective extraction/purification techniques than those used, a comprehensive study was conducted using aqueous biphasic systems (ABS) composed of ILs and inorganic/organic salts. In addition, ILs were characterized by a polarity scale, using solvatochromic probes, aiming at providing prior indications on the ILs affinity for particular added-value products. Solid-liquid (S-L) extractions from biomass and using aqueous solution of ILs were also investigated. In particular, and applying and experimental factorial design to optimize the operational conditions, caffeine was extracted from guaraná seeds and spent coffee. With both types of extractions it was found that it is possible to recover the high-value compounds and to recycle the IL and salt solutions. Finally, aiming at exploring the recovery of added-value compounds from biomass using a simpler and more suistainable technique, the solubility of gallic acid, vanillin and caffeine was studied in aqueous solutions of several ILs and common salts. With the gathered results it was possible to demonstrate that ILs act as hydrotropes and that water can be used as an adequate antisolvent. This thesis describes the use of ILs towards the development of more effective and sustainable processes.

Development of a sustainable method for the extraction of lycopene and β-carotene from food wastes

The main objective of the present work is the study of a profitable process not only in the extraction and selective separation of lycopene and β-carotene, two compounds present in tomato, but also in its potential application to food industry wastes. This is one of the industries that produce larger amounts of wastes, which are rich in high value biomolecules with great economic interest. However, the conventional methods used to extract this kind of compounds are expensive which limits their application at large scale. Lycopene and βcarotene are carotenoids with high commercial value, known for their antioxidant activity and benefits to human health. Their biggest source is tomato, one of the world’s most consumed fruits, reason for which large quantities of waste is produced. This work focuses on the study of diverse solvents with a high potential to extract carotenoids from tomato, as well as the search for more environmentally benign solvents than those currently used to extract lycopene and β-carotene from biomass. Additionally, special attention was paid to the creation of a continuous process that would allow the fractionation of the compounds for further purification. Thus, the present work started with the extraction of both carotenoids using a wide range of solvents, namely, organic solvents, conventional salts, ionic liquids, polymers and surfactants. In this stage, each solvent was evaluated in what regards their capacity of extraction as well as their penetration ability in biomass. The results collected showed that an adequate selection of the solvents may lead to the complete extraction of both carotenoids in one single step, particularly acetone and tetrahydrofuran were the most effective ones. However, the general low penetration capacity of salts, ionic liquids, polymers and surfactants makes these solvents ineffective in the solid-liquid extraction process. As the organic solvents showed the highest capacity to extract lycopene and βcarotene, in particular tetrahydrofuran and acetone, the latter solvent used in the development process of fractionation, using to this by strategic use of solvents. This step was only successfully developed through the manipulation of the solubility of each compound in ethanol and n-hexane. The results confirmed the possibility of fractionating the target compounds using the correct addition order of the solvents. Approximately, 39 % of the β-carotene was dissolved in ethanol and about 64 % of lycopene was dissolved in n-hexane, thus indicating their separation for two different solvents which shows the selective character of the developed process without any prior stage optimization. This study revealed that the use of organic solvents leads to selective extraction of lycopene and β-carotene, allowing diminishing the numerous stages involved in conventional methods. At the end, it was possible to idealize a sustainable and of high industrial relevance integrated process, nevertheless existing the need for additional optimization studies in the future.