Desenvolvimento de sensores de fibra óptica para monitorização de compostos orgânicos voláteis em ambientes industriais

O objectivo geral deste trabalho consistiu no desenvolvimento de novos sensores químicos de fibra óptica (OF) para análise de compostos orgânicos voláteis (VOCs) em ambientes industriais. A componente de detecção dos sensores desenvolvidos é constituída por uma pequena secção de fibra óptica revestida com um filme de polímero. A morfologia dos filmes poliméricos foi analisada e caracterizada por microscopia electrónica de varrimento (SEM), sendo a espessura dos filmes determinada por espectroscopia de retrodispersão de Rutherford (RBS, acrónimo do inglês Rutherford backscattering spectrometry). O desempenho analítico dos sensores de OF foi avaliado relativamente a diferentes parâmetros operacionais, tais como, concentração da solução de revestimento, técnica de deposição do filme polimérico, temperatura da célula de injecção, temperatura de cura do material polimérico, caudal do gás de arraste, comprimento de onda e frequência de funcionamento do laser, configurações estruturais da célula de injecção e do tubo analítico. Foram desenvolvidos dois sensores de OF a operar na região do infravermelho para determinação de diferentes classes de VOCs, nomeadamente hidrocarbonetos aromáticos, clorados e alifáticos, além de álcoois. Os sensores de OF desenvolvidos apresentaram adequadas características analíticas em termos de sensibilidade, linearidade, repetitibilidade e reprodutibilidade do sinal analítico, sendo o tempo de resposta de aproximadamente 30 segundos. Foi também desenvolvido um sensor de OF para especiação de benzeno, tolueno e o-xileno a operar na região do visível (635 - 650 nm), tendo sido aplicado à análise de amostras reais de ar de uma indústria de solventes. Relativamente à monitorização de VOCs em ambientes industriais, foi desenvolvido um sensor de OF para monitorização in situ e de forma remota (até uma distância máxima de 60 metros do local de amostragem) de benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno, p-xileno, m-xileno e o-xileno (BTEX), utilizando um díodo laser a 1550 nm. O desempenho analítico do sensor desenvolvido foi comparado, para a determinação de BTEX, com a cromatografia gasosa acoplada à detecção com ionização de chama (GC-FID). Foram ainda desenvolvidos dois detectores de fibra óptica acoplados a um cromatógrafo de gás para especiação de álcoois e hidrocarbonetos aromáticos. A metodologia desenvolvida baseada em cromatografia gasosa acoplada a um detector de fibra óptica (GC-OF) foi aplicada à análise de amostras reais de ar de uma indústria de solventes, comparando os respectivos resultados com os obtidos por GC-FID. Por fim foi efectuado um estudo visando a obtenção de um modelo geral para a resposta analítica dos sensores de fibra óptica desenvolvidos.

Síntese e aplicações catalíticas na funcionalização de alcanos de novos compostos com polioxometalatos e catiões orgânicos

A presente dissertação, que no seu conjunto se propõe apresentar o estudo de oxidação de compostos orgânicos com peróxido de hidrogénio na presença dos aniões do tipo Keggin, mono-substituídos por MnIII e FeIII, sob a forma de sais de tetra-n-butilamónio (TBA) e suportados em matriz de sílica funcionalizada, enquanto vital método de obtenção de importante precursores de síntese orgânica, tem na sua base o trabalho de Doutoramento desenvolvido no Departamento de Química da Universidade de Aveiro. Os compostos preparados e testados em sistema homogéneo foram os sais de TBA dos aniões de Keggin, de fórmula geral [XW11M(H2O)O39]n-, onde X = P, Si ou B e M = MnIII e FeIII. Em sistema heterogéneo foram testados diferentes materiais, que diferem entre si na matriz de sílica. Assim, fez-se a heterogeneização de [PW11Fe(H2O)O39]4- em sílica funcionalizada com catiões de césio e grupos propilamónio; [BW11Fe(H2O)O39]6- e [SiW11Fe(H2O)O39]5- foram imobilizados em sílica contendo grupos aminopropilo e o anião [PW11Mn(H2O)O39]4- foi suportado em sílica quimicamente modificada com grupos alquilamónio. Os substratos orgânicos estudados incluem o 1H-indeno, 1,2-di-hidronaftaleno, etilbenzeno, cumeno, p-cimeno, sec-butilbenzeno, 1- e 2-etilnaftaleno, cis-cicloocteno e ciclooctano. Paralelamente usaram-se alguns outros substratos, quando necessário obter esclarecimentos mecanísticos. A tese assenta numa estrutura composta por 7 capítulos. Na primeira, faz-se uma abordagem aos polioxometalatos e às reacções de oxidação de hidrocarbonetos, com particular destaque no uso de polioxometalatos em catálise oxidativa e também no uso de peróxido de hidrogénio como oxidante. A eficiência catalítica dos aniões de Keggin mono substituídos por MnIII e FeIII, em sistema homogéneo foi avaliada na oxidação de compostos orgânicos característicos, nomeadamente de ciclo-alcenilbenzenos, alquilbenzenos, ciclo-alquilbenzenos e hidrocarbonetos aromáticos policíclicos com H2O2, em acetonitrilo. Os resultados destes estudos encontram-se descritos nos capítulos dois, três e quatro desta tese. Estes compostos mostraram-se catalisadores eficientes e selectivos para a oxidação de alcanos e alcenos. O quinto capítulo da tese prossegue com a síntese, caracterização e eficiência catalítica dos polioxotungstatos referidos anteriormente imobilizados numa matriz de sílica funcionalizada com iões césio (SiO2-Cs), grupos aminopropilo (SiO2–(CH2)3NH2) ou trietilpropilamónio (SiO2-(CH2)3N(Et)3). A actividade catalítica destes compostos foi estudada utilizando o cis-cicloocteno e ciclooctano como substratos padrão. A oxidação de cis-clicoocteno originou o epóxido com 100% de selectividade e o catalisador foi reutilizado durante 4 ciclos com elevada eficiência. No sexto capítulo, são descritas as metodologias experimentais de síntese dos novos compostos, as condições catalíticas, a instrumentação e demais métodos e procedimentos usados. No sétimo e último capítulo, tecem-se as conclusões finais e apresentam-se algumas perspectivas de trabalho futuro utilizando o sistema, POM/H2O2, usado neste trabalho.

Contribution of biomass combustion to air pollutant emissions

In Portugal, it was estimated that around 1.95 Mton/year of wood is used in residential wood burning for heating and cooking. Additionally, in the last decades, burnt forest area has also been increasing. These combustions result in high levels of toxic air pollutants and a large perturbation of atmospheric chemistry, interfere with climate and have adverse effects on health. Accurate quantification of the amounts of trace gases and particulate matter emitted from residential wood burning, agriculture and garden waste burning and forest fires on a regional and global basis is essential for various purposes, including: the investigation of several atmospheric processes, the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions, and quantification of the air pollution sources that affect human health at regional scales. In Southern Europe, data on detailed emission factors from biomass burning are rather inexistent. Emission inventories and source apportionment, photochemical and climate change models use default values obtained for US and Northern Europe biofuels. Thus, it is desirable to use more specific locally available data. The objective of this study is to characterise and quantify the contribution of biomass combustion sources to atmospheric trace gases and aerosol concentrations more representative of the national reality. Laboratory (residential wood combustion) and field (agriculture/garden waste burning and experimental wildland fires) sampling experiments were carried out. In the laboratory, after the selection of the most representative wood species and combustion equipment in Portugal, a sampling program to determine gaseous and particulate matter emission rates was set up, including organic and inorganic aerosol composition. In the field, the smoke plumes from agriculture/garden waste and experimental wildland fires were sampled. The results of this study show that the combustion equipment and biofuel type used have an important role in the emission levels and composition. Significant differences between the use of traditional combustion equipment versus modern equipments were also observed. These differences are due to higher combustion efficiency of modern equipment, reflecting the smallest amount of particulate matter, organic carbon and carbon monoxide released. With regard to experimental wildland fires in shrub dominated areas, it was observed that the largest organic fraction in the samples studied was mainly composed by vegetation pyrolysis products. The major organic components in the smoke samples were pyrolysates of vegetation cuticles, mainly comprising steradienes and sterol derivatives, carbohydrates from the breakdown of cellulose, aliphatic lipids from vegetation waxes and methoxyphenols from the lignin thermal degradation. Despite being a banned practice in our country, agriculture/garden waste burning is actually quite common. To assess the particulate matter composition, the smoke from three different agriculture/garden residues have been sampled into 3 different size fractions (PM2.5, PM2.5-10 and PM>10). Despite distribution patterns of organic compounds in particulate matter varied among residues, the amounts of phenolics (polyphenol and guaiacyl derivatives) and organic acids were always predominant over other organic compounds in the organosoluble fraction of smoke. Among biomarkers, levoglucosan, β-sitosterol and phytol were detected in appreciable amounts in the smoke of all agriculture/garden residues. In addition, inositol may be considered as an eventual tracer for the smoke from potato haulm burning. It was shown that the prevailing ambient conditions (such as high humidity in the atmosphere) likely contributed to atmospheric processes (e.g. coagulation and hygroscopic growth), which influenced the particle size characteristics of the smoke tracers, shifting their distribution to larger diameters. An assessment of household biomass consumption was also made through a national scale survey. The information obtained with the survey combined with the databases on emission factors from the laboratory and field tests allowed us to estimate the pollutant amounts emitted in each Portuguese district. In addition to a likely contribution to the improvement of emission inventories, emission factors obtained for tracer compounds in this study can be applied in receptor models to assess the contribution of biomass burning to the levels of atmospheric aerosols and their constituents obtained in monitoring campaigns in Mediterranean Europe.

Híbridos orgânicos-inorgânicos para aplicações de baixo custo em óptica integrada

O objectivo desta tese é a utilização de materiais híbridos orgânicos-inorgânicos, designados por di-ureiasis modificados pela adição de tetra-propóxido de zircónio (Zr(i-OPr)4) estabilizado com ácido metacrílico (CH2=C(CH3)COOH), obtidos pela via sol-gel, para aplicações em dispositivos ópticos integrados de baixo custo. A estrutura local dos di-ureiasis com diferentes concentrações de propóxido de zircónio (20 a 80 % mol) foi estudada por difracção de raios-X, espalhamento de raios X a baixos ângulos, microscopia de força atómica, ressonância magnética nuclear dos núcleos dos átomos de 29Si e 13C, espectroscopia no infravermelho por transformada de Fourier, espectroscopia de Raman por transformada de Fourier e termogravimetria. A influência dos parâmetros de síntese, concentração de tetra propóxido de zircónio e rácio tetra propóxido de zircónio: ácido metacrilico na estrutura e propriedades das amostras em monólito e filmes finos (depositados pela técnica de deposição por rotação do substrato) foram avaliadas, permitindo obter amostras transparentes, fotopolimerizáveis e estáveis termicamente até aos 100 ºC. Foram determinadas as propriedades dos guias planares em substratos de vidro borosilicato e silício oxidado (1

Volatile terpenoids and C13 norisoprenoids in wines: development of rapid methods of analysis and evaluation of the sesquiterpenoids biological potential

Vitis vinifera L., the most widely cultivated fruit crop in the world, was the starting point for the development of this PhD thesis. This subject was exploited following on two actual trends: i) the development of rapid, simple, and high sensitive methodologies with minimal sample handling; and ii) the valuation of natural products as a source of compounds with potential health benefits. The target group of compounds under study were the volatile terpenoids (mono and sesquiterpenoids) and C13 norisoprenoids, since they may present biological impact, either from the sensorial point of view, as regards to the wine aroma, or by the beneficial properties for the human health. Two novel methodologies for quantification of C13 norisoprenoids in wines were developed. The first methodology, a rapid method, was based on the headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography-quadrupole mass spectrometry operating at selected ion monitoring mode (HS-SPME/GC-qMS-SIM), using GC conditions that allowed obtaining a C13 norisoprenoid volatile signature. It does not require any pre-treatment of the sample, and the C13 norisoprenoid composition of the wine was evaluated based on the chromatographic profile and specific m/z fragments, without complete chromatographic separation of its components. The second methodology, used as reference method, was based on the HS-SPME/GC-qMS-SIM, allowing the GC conditions for an adequate chromatographic resolution of wine components. For quantification purposes, external calibration curves were constructed with β-ionone, with regression coefficient (r2) of 0.9968 (RSD 12.51 %) and 0.9940 (RSD of 1.08 %) for the rapid method and for the reference method, respectively. Low detection limits (1.57 and 1.10 μg L-1) were observed. These methodologies were applied to seventeen white and red table wines. Two vitispirane isomers (158-1529 L-1) and 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN) (6.42-39.45 μg L-1) were quantified. The data obtained for vitispirane isomers and TDN using the two methods were highly correlated (r2 of 0.9756 and 0.9630, respectively). A rapid methodology for the establishment of the varietal volatile profile of Vitis vinifera L. cv. 'Fernão-Pires' (FP) white wines by headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GCxGC-TOFMS) was developed. Monovarietal wines from different harvests, Appellations, and producers were analysed. The study was focused on the volatiles that seem to be significant to the varietal character, such as mono and sesquiterpenic compounds, and C13 norisoprenoids. Two-dimensional chromatographic spaces containing the varietal compounds using the m/z fragments 93, 121, 161, 175 and 204 were established as follows: 1tR = 255-575 s, 2tR = 0,424-1,840 s, for monoterpenoids, 1tR = 555-685 s, 2tR = 0,528-0,856 s, for C13 norisoprenoids, and 1tR = 695-950 s, 2tR = 0,520-0,960 s, for sesquiterpenic compounds. For the three chemical groups under study, from a total of 170 compounds, 45 were determined in all wines, allowing defining the "varietal volatile profile" of FP wine. Among these compounds, 15 were detected for the first time in FP wines. This study proposes a HS-SPME/GCxGC-TOFMS based methodology combined with classification-reference sample to be used for rapid assessment of varietal volatile profile of wines. This approach is very useful to eliminate the majority of the non-terpenic and non-C13 norisoprenic compounds, allowing the definition of a two-dimensional chromatographic space containing these compounds, simplifying the data compared to the original data, and reducing the time of analysis. The presence of sesquiterpenic compounds in Vitis vinifera L. related products, to which are assigned several biological properties, prompted us to investigate the antioxidant, antiproliferative and hepatoprotective activities of some sesquiterpenic compounds. Firstly, the antiradical capacity of trans,trans-farnesol, cis-nerolidol, α-humulene and guaiazulene was evaluated using chemical (DPPH• and hydroxyl radicals) and biological (Caco-2 cells) models. Guaiazulene (IC50= 0.73 mM) was the sesquiterpene with higher scavenger capacity against DPPH•, while trans,trans-farnesol (IC50= 1.81 mM) and cis-nerolidol (IC50= 1.48 mM) were more active towards hydroxyl radicals. All compounds, with the exception of α-humulene, at non-cytotoxic levels (≤ 1 mM), were able to protect Caco-2 cells from oxidative stress induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide. The activity of the compounds under study was also evaluated as antiproliferative agents. Guaiazulene and cis-nerolidol were able to more effectively arrest the cell cycle in the S-phase than trans,trans-farnesol and α-humulene, being the last almost inactive. The relative hepatoprotection effect of fifteen sesquiterpenic compounds, presenting different chemical structures and commonly found in plants and plant-derived foods and beverages, was assessed. Endogenous lipid peroxidation and induced lipid peroxidation with tert-butyl hydroperoxide were evaluated in liver homogenates from Wistar rats. With the exception of α-humulene, all the sesquiterpenic compounds under study (1 mM) were effective in reducing the malonaldehyde levels in both endogenous and induced lipid peroxidation up to 35% and 70%, respectively. The developed 3D-QSAR models, relating the hepatoprotection activity with molecular properties, showed good fit (R2LOO > 0.819) with good prediction power (Q2 > 0.950 and SDEP < 2%) for both models. A network of effects associated with structural and chemical features of sesquiterpenic compounds such as shape, branching, symmetry, and presence of electronegative fragments, can modulate the hepatoprotective activity observed for these compounds. In conclusion, this study allowed the development of rapid and in-depth methods for the assessment of varietal volatile compounds that might have a positive impact on sensorial and health attributes related to Vitis vinifera L. These approaches can be extended to the analysis of other related food matrices, including grapes and musts, among others. In addition, the results of in vitro assays open a perspective for the promising use of the sesquiterpenic compounds, with similar chemical structures such as those studied in the present work, as antioxidants, hepatoprotective and antiproliferative agents, which meets the current challenges related to diseases of modern civilization.