Biofabricação de enxertos porosos de PCL/FastOs™: aplicação óssea

A Engenharia de Tecidos é um domínio multidisciplinar que combina especialistas de múltiplos domínios, no sentido de se desenvolverem substitutos biológicos para a regeneração, reparação ou restauração de funções de órgãos ou tecidos. A estratégia mais comum em engenharia de tecidos consiste na utilização de matrizes de suporte (scaffolds) tridimensionais, biocompatíveis, biodegradáveis e altamente porosos, os quais servem de substrato físico ao processo de adesão, proliferação e diferenciação celular. O objectivo deste trabalho de investigação centrou-se na produção e caracterização de scaffolds de PCL e de PCL com partículas de biovidro, abordando um processo de biofabricação, que teve por base o princípio da extrusão. Utilizou-se para tal um equipamento patenteado pelo Centro para o Desenvolvimento Rápido e Sustentado do Produto (CDRsp) designado Bioextruder. Trata-se de um sistema concebido para a produção de matrizes com ou sem encapsulamento de células, de uma forma automática, flexível e integrada. As estruturas obtidas caracterizaram-se quanto às propriedades térmicas, químicas, morfológicas e mecânicas. Realizaram-se ainda, testes de bioactividade e testes de degradação in vitro. Os resultados obtidos mostram que as condições de processamento não induzem qualquer alteração no que diz respeito às propriedades térmicas e químicas dos materiais, que o aumento do teor de biovidro conduz a uma fragmentação da matriz polimérica num período de tempo mais curto, que os scaffolds obtidos apresentam uma geometria bem definida e uma distribuição de poros uniforme. Demonstra-se assim, que a combinação da matriz polimérica (PCL) com o biovidro, sob a forma de scaffolds é promissora para aplicações em Engenharia de Tecidos e Medicina Regenerativa.

Challenges in mercury speciation and fractionation in soil and sediment

This investigation focused on the development, test and validation of methodologies for mercury fractionation and speciation in soil and sediment. After an exhaustive review of the literature, several methods were chosen and tested in well characterised soil and sediment samples. Sequential extraction procedures that divide mercury fractions according to their mobility and potential availability in the environment were investigated. The efficiency of different solvents for fractionation of mercury was evaluated, as well as the adequacy of different analytical instruments for quantification of mercury in the extracts. Kinetic experiments to establish the equilibrium time for mercury release from soil or sediment were also performed. It was found that in the studied areas, only a very small percentage of mercury is present as mobile species and that mobility is associated to higher aluminium and manganese contents, and that high contents of organic matter and sulfur result in mercury tightly bound to the matrix. Sandy soils tend to release mercury faster that clayey soils, and therefore, texture of soil or sediment has a strong influence on the mobility of mercury. It was also understood that analytical techniques for quantification of mercury need to be further developed, with lower quantification limits, particularly for mercury quantification of less concentrated fractions: water-soluble e exchangeable. Although the results provided a better understanding of the distribution of mercury in the sample, the complexity of the procedure limits its applicability and robustness. A proficiency-testing scheme targeting total mercury determination in soil, sediment, fish and human hair was organised in order to evaluate the consistency of results obtained by different laboratories, applying their routine methods to the same test samples. Additionally, single extractions by 1 mol L-1 ammonium acetate solution, 0.1 mol L-1 HCl and 0.1 mol L-1 CaCl2, as well as extraction of the organometallic fraction were proposed for soil; the last was also suggested for sediment and fish. This study was important to update the knowledge on analytical techniques that are being used for mercury quantification, the associated problems and sources of error, and to improve and standardize mercury extraction techniques, as well as to implement effective strategies for quality control in mercury determination. A different, “non chemical-like” method for mercury species identification was developed, optimised and validated, based on the thermo-desorption of the different mercury species. Compared to conventional extraction procedures, this method has advantages: it requires little to no sample treatment; a complete identification of species present is obtained in less than two hours; mercury losses are almost neglectable; can be considered “clean”, as no residues are produced; the worldwide comparison of results obtained is easier and reliable, an important step towards the validation of the method. Therefore, the main deliverables of this PhD thesis are an improved knowledge on analytical procedures for identification and quantification of mercury species in soils and sediments, as well as a better understanding of the factors controlling the behaviour of mercury in these matrices.

Modelling the Minho river plume intrusion into the rias baixas

The Minho River, situated 30 km south of the Rias Baixas is the most important freshwater source flowing into the Western Galician Coast (NW of the Iberian Peninsula). This discharge is important to determine the hydrological patterns adjacent to its mouth, particularly close to the Galician coastal region. The buoyancy generated by the Minho plume can flood the Rias Baixas for long periods, reversing the normal estuarine density gradients. Thus, it becomes important to analyse its dynamics as well as the thermohaline patterns of the areas affected by the freshwater spreading. Thus, the main aim of this work was to study the propagation of the Minho estuarine plume to the Rias Baixas, establishing the conditions in which this plume affects the circulation and hydrographic features of these coastal systems, through the development and application of the numerical model MOHID. For this purpose, the hydrographic features of the Rias Baixas mouths were studied. It was observed that at the northern mouths, due to their shallowness, the heat fluxes between the atmosphere and ocean are the major forcing, influencing the water temperature, while at the southern mouths the influence of the upwelling events and the Minho River discharge were more frequent. The salinity increases from south to north, revealing that the observed low values may be caused by the Minho River freshwater discharge. An assessment of wind data along the Galician coast was carried out, in order to evaluate the applicability of the study to the dispersal of the Minho estuarine plume. Firstly, a comparative analysis between winds obtained from land meteorological stations and offshore QuikSCAT satellite were performed. This comparison revealed that satellite data constitute a good approach to study wind induced coastal phenomena. However, since the numerical model MOHID requires wind data with high spatial and temporal resolution close to the coast, results of the forecasted model WRF were added to the previous study. The analyses revealed that the WRF model data is a consistent tool to obtain representative wind data near the coast, showing good results when comparing with in situ wind observations from oceanographic buoys. To study the influence of the Minho buoyant discharge influence on the Rias Baixas, a set of three one-way nested models was developed and implemented, using the numerical model MOHID. The first model domain is a barotropic model and includes the whole Iberian Peninsula coast. The second and third domains are baroclinic models, where the second domain is a coarse representation of the Rias Baixas and adjacent coastal area, while the third includes the same area with a higher resolution. A bi-dimensional model was also implemented in the Minho estuary, in order to quantify the flow (and its properties) that the estuary injects into the ocean. The chosen period for the Minho estuarine plume propagation validation was the spring of 1998, since a high Minho River discharge was reported, as well as favourable wind patterns to advect the estuarine plume towards the Rias Baixas, and there was field data available to compare with the model predictions. The obtained results show that the adopted nesting methodology was successful implemented. Model predictions reproduce accurately the hydrodynamics and thermohaline patterns on the Minho estuary and Rias Baixas. The importance of the Minho river discharge and the wind forcing in the event of May 1998 was also studied. The model results showed that a continuous moderate Minho River discharge combined with southerly winds is enough to reverse the Rias Baixas circulation pattern, reducing the importance of the occurrence of specific events of high runoff values. The conditions in which the estuarine plume Minho affects circulation and hydrography of the Rias Baixas were evaluated. The numerical results revealed that the Minho estuarine plume responds rapidly to wind variations and is also influenced by the bathymetry and morphology of the coastline. Without wind forcing, the plume expands offshore, creating a bulge in front of the river mouth. When the wind blows southwards, the main feature is the offshore extension of the plume. Otherwise, northward wind spreads the river plume towards the Rias Baixas. The plume is confined close to the coast, reaching the Rias Baixas after 1.5 days. However, for Minho River discharges higher than 800 m3 s-1, the Minho estuarine plume reverses the circulation patterns in the Rias Baixas. It was also observed that the wind stress and Minho River discharge are the most important factors influencing the size and shape of the Minho estuarine plume. Under the same conditions, the water exchange between Rias Baixas was analysed following the trajectories particles released close to the Minho River mouth. Over 5 days, under Minho River discharges higher than 2100 m3 s-1 combined with southerly winds of 6 m s-1, an intense water exchange between Rias was observed. However, only 20% of the particles found in Ria de Pontevedra come directly from the Minho River. In summary, the model application developed in this study contributed to the characterization and understanding of the influence of the Minho River on the Rias Baixas circulation and hydrography, highlighting that this methodology can be replicated to other coastal systems.

Novas dispersões aquosas com morfologia controlada para revestimentos

O objetivo desta dissertação foi o desenvolvimento de dispersões poliméricas acrílicas, passíveis de serem usadas como ligantes em esmaltes aquosos que sejam capazes de conferir características especiais como elevada resistência ao empilhamento e à nódoa, assim como reduzir o impacto no ambiente quer através da utilização de matérias-primas de fontes renováveis, quer pela substituição de esmaltes de base solvente por esmaltes de base aquosa. Depois de uma introdução em que se contextualiza o conhecimento e as práticas nas áreas de polimerização em emulsão e revestimentos decorativos, são descritos e discutidos os resultados das várias etapas de desenvolvimento efetuadas ao longo do qual foram exploradas diferentes vias: - Funcionalização de polímeros acrílicos procurando melhorar as propriedades de superfície através da introdução de monómeros com grupos funcionais amina, epóxido e acetoacetoxilo; - Formulação de dispersões poliméricas com partículas de morfologia heterogénea, otimizando-se as suas propriedades de superfície em função da variação da composição monomérica das diferentes fases, da partição entre as duas fases poliméricas e diferentes níveis de monómero funcional. Complementaram-se os resultados com seleções afinadas baseadas em ensaios delineados através de planeamento de experiências. - Modificação dos produtos obtidos para melhoria de propriedades de resistência à nódoa, através da adição de aditivos específicos; - Teste de emulsionantes com origem em fontes renováveis quer aniónicos, quer não-iónicos. Todas as dispersões aquosas foram caracterizadas de acordo com as suas características mais relevantes entre as quais a temperatura mínima de formação de filme, o tamanho médio de partícula e a formação de grumos. As formulações mais promissoras foram também caracterizadas por 1H - NMR, FTIR, DSC, STEM e AFM). Seguidamente com essas dispersões foram preparados esmaltes com as dispersões aquosas mais promissoras que foram caracterizados exaustivamente em termos de propriedades de relevo para a aplicação decorativa em madeira. Os objetivos principais do trabalho foram atingidos, tendo sido desenvolvido um produto com morfologia heterogénea que apresenta elevada resistência ao empilhamento e propriedades antinódoa aceitáveis capaz de substituir os esmaltes de base solvente. A sua produção foi validada através do fabrico industrial (scale-up) e introdução no mercado. Relativamente à utilização de matérias-primas de fontes renováveis, esta carece ainda de otimizações futuras.

Cinética da transferência de calor em materiais com mudança de fase

É extensa a bibliografia dedicada a potenciais aplicações de materiais com mudança de fase na regulação térmica e no armazenamento de calor ou de frio. No entanto, a baixa condutividade térmica impõe limitações numa grande diversidade de aplicações com exigências críticas em termos de tempo de resposta curto ou com requisitos de elevada potência em ciclos de carga/descarga de calor latente. Foram desenvolvidos códigos numéricos no sentido de obter soluções precisas para descrever a cinética da transferência de calor com mudança de fase, com base em geometrias representativas, i.e. planar e esférica. Foram igualmente propostas soluções aproximadas, sendo identificados correspondentes critérios de validação em função das propriedades dos materiais de mudança de fase e de outros parâmetros relevantes tais como as escalas de tamanho e de tempo, etc. As referidas soluções permitiram identificar com rigor os fatores determinantes daquelas limitações, quantificar os correspondentes efeitos e estabelecer critérios de qualidade adequados para diferentes tipologias de potenciais aplicações. Os referidos critérios foram sistematizados de acordo com metodologias de seleção propostas por Ashby e co-autores, tendo em vista o melhor desempenho dos materiais em aplicações representativas, designadamente com requisitos ao nível de densidade energética, tempo de resposta, potência de carga/descarga e gama de temperaturas de operação. Nesta sistematização foram incluídos alguns dos compósitos desenvolvidos durante o presente trabalho. A avaliação das limitações acima mencionadas deu origem ao desenvolvimento de materiais compósitos para acumulação de calor ou frio, com acentuada melhoria de resposta térmica, mediante incorporação de uma fase com condutividade térmica muito superior à da matriz. Para este efeito, foram desenvolvidos modelos para otimizar a distribuição espacial da fase condutora, de modo a superar os limites de percolação previstos por modelos clássicos de condução em compósitos com distribuição aleatória, visando melhorias de desempenho térmico com reduzidas frações de fase condutora e garantindo que a densidade energética não é significativamente afetada. Os modelos elaborados correspondem a compósitos de tipo core-shell, baseados em microestruturas celulares da fase de elevada condutividade térmica, impregnadas com o material de mudança de fase propriamente dito. Além de visarem a minimização da fração de fase condutora e correspondentes custos, os modelos de compósitos propostos tiveram em conta a adequação a métodos de processamento versáteis, reprodutíveis, preferencialmente com base na emulsificação de líquidos orgânicos em suspensões aquosas ou outros processos de reduzidas complexidade e com base em materiais de baixo custo (material de mudança de fase e fase condutora). O design da distribuição microestrutural também considerou a possibilidade de orientação preferencial de fases condutoras com elevada anisotropia (p.e. grafite), mediante auto-organização. Outros estágios do projeto foram subordinados a esses objetivos de desenvolvimento de compósitos com resposta térmica otimizada, em conformidade com previsões dos modelos de compósitos de tipo core-shell, acima mencionadas. Neste enquadramento, foram preparados 3 tipos de compósitos com organização celular da fase condutora, com as seguintes características e metodologias: i) compósitos celulares parafina-grafite para acumulação de calor, preparados in-situ por emulsificação de uma suspensão de grafite em parafina fundida; ii) compósitos celulares parafina-Al2O3 para acumulação de calor, preparados por impregnação de parafina em esqueleto cerâmico celular de Al2O3; iii) compósitos celulares para acumulação de frio, obtidos mediante impregnação de matrizes celulares de grafite com solução de colagénio, após preparação prévia das matrizes de grafite celular. Os compósitos com esqueleto cerâmico (ii) requereram o desenvolvimento prévio de um método para o seu processamento, baseado na emulsificação de suspensões de Al2O3 em parafina fundida, com adequados aditivos dispersantes, tensioactivos e consolidantes do esqueleto cerâmico, tornando-o auto-suportável durante as fases posteriores de eliminação da parafina, até à queima a alta temperatura, originando cerâmicos celulares com adequada resistência mecânica. Os compósitos desenvolvidos apresentam melhorias significativos de condutividade térmica, atingindo ganhos superiores a 1 ordem de grandeza com frações de fase condutora inferior a 10 % vol. (4 W m-1 K-1), em virtude da organização core-shell e com o contributo adicional da anisotropia da grafite, mediante orientação preferencial. Foram ainda preparados compósitos de armazenamento de frio (iii), com orientação aleatória da fase condutora, obtidos mediante gelificação de suspensões de partículas de grafite em solução aquosa de colagénio. Apesar da estabilidade microestrutural e de forma, conferida por gelificação, estes compósitos confirmaram a esperada limitação dos compósitos com distribuição aleatória, em confronto com os ganhos alcançados com a organização de tipo core-shell.

Effect assessment of nanoparticles toxicity in the terrestrial compartment

Over 11 million tons of nanomaterials (NMs) have been produced in 2012 and predictions point the increase in production. Despite predictions and extended usage via consumer products and industry, the understanding of the potential impact of these materials on the environment is virtually absent. The main aim of this thesis is to understand how a selected group of nanomaterials (metal based particles) may impact soil invertebrates, with special focus on the mechanisms of response. Since a case-by-case Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) of all the emerging contaminants (particularly NMs) is impossible, among others due to time and cost reasons, to gain understanding on the mechanism of action and response is very important to reach a common paradigm. Understanding the modes of action provides predictive characters in cross particle extrapolation. Besides, it also provides insight for the production of new and sustainable materials. Overall, the effects of the selected NMs (Copper and Silver, Titanium and Zirconium oxides) and the respective salt forms, were investigated at the gene expression (using high-throughput tools, microarray and qPCR technology), biochemical (using enzymatic assays for analysis of oxidative stress markers) and organism (survival and reproduction as in OECD test guidelines) levels, this using standard soil species (Enchytraeus albidus, Enchytraeus crypticus, Eisenia fetida). Gene expression analysis provided valuable information on the mechanisms affected by each of the NMs. The gene expression profile highlighted a (nano)material signature and the effect of the duration of exposure. The functional analyses integrated with the biochemical and organism data, revealed a good understanding power. The biochemical parameters (oxidative stress related) were distinct across the materials and also influenced by duration of exposure and concentration. The standardized organismal responses differed the least between the various materials. The overall outcome is that, in this context of NMs effect assessment, gene expression and enzymatic assays introduced a very important knowledge gap, which could not had been achieved by the standard organismal effects alone. A reoccurring issue with some metal based NMs is the possible dissolution and subsequent release of ions that then causes toxicity e.g. Cu-NPs or Ag-NPs release Cu2+ or Ag+. The oxidation state of the particles was investigated, although this was not the focus of the thesis. The study of fate, e.g. dissolution of NPs, is also only in its beginning and the appropriate techniques are currently being developed. The results showed a specific nanoparticle effect. The UV exposure with titanium dioxide nanoparticles increased its effect.

Determinação e aplicações dos frutooligossacarídeos de Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius)

Torna-se cada vez mais importante fortalecer o vínculo entre o setor agrário, as universidades e o setor industrial. Através de estudos científicos pode-se aprimorar a produção agrícola, valorizar comercialmente os produtos manufaturados e permitir usos biotecnológicos anteriormente indisponíveis. Este trabalho ambicionou gerar dados que incentivassem e permitissem o suporte técnico-científico adequado ao pequeno e médio agricultor do litoral da Grande-Florianópolis, no estado de Santa Catarina (Brasil) viabilizando a exploração comercial das raízes de yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius). Primeiro, o enfoque agronómico que objetivou ofertar dados científicos da adequação climática do plantio de yacon na região do litoral de Florianópolis (SC) com a finalidade de otimizar a produção e rentabilizá-la. Por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência foram quantificados os valores de frutooligossacarídeos (fração de interesse, alimento funcional com efeito prebiótico), frutose, glucose e sacarose e avaliaram-se os efeitos diretos dos fatores climáticos na produção fazendo uso da análise multivariada para sua interpretação. Os resultados mostram que a produção de FOS não consegue atingir valores similares aos de outras regiões onde o yacon é explorado economicamente. Igualmente a produção de FOS parece ter uma grande dependência do clima, especialmente da amplitude térmica e da chuva. O segundo enfoque foi a possibilidade de exploração comercial, através de secagem em estufa. O processo de secagem, especialmente em amostras produzidas em condições climatológicas mais drásticas induzem modificações provocadas pela reacção de Maillard, como foi verificado por estudos de GCxGC-Tof-Ms e ESI-MS. O terceiro enfoque foi biotecnológico e consistiu em aproveitar frutooligossacarídeos comerciais para utilizá-los como matriz polimérica para produção de estruturas em escala nano e micrométrica através da eletropulverização. Foram observadas, nesta etapa, os aspetos morfológicos e as características das partículas formadas e a sua capacidade de servir como veículo transportador de compostos com características anti-oxidantes.

Characterization of water-soluble organic matter from urban aerosols

Water-soluble organic matter (WSOM) from atmospheric particles comprises a complex array of molecular structures that play an important role on the physic-chemical properties of atmospheric particles and, therefore, are linked to several global-relevant atmospheric processes which impact the climate and public health. Due to the large variety of sources and formation processes, adequate knowledge on WSOM composition and its effects on the properties of atmospheric aerosol are still limited. Therefore, this thesis aims at providing new insights on the molecular composition of WSOM from fine atmospheric aerosols typical of an urban area (Aveiro, Portugal). In a first step, adsorption phenomena of semivolatile organic compounds on quartz fibre filters employed in the collection of atmospheric aerosols were assessed. Afterwards, atmospheric aerosol samples were collected during fifteen months, on a weekly basis. A mass balance of aerosol samples was performed in order to set the relative contribution of elemental carbon, WSOM and water-insoluble organic matter to the aerosol mass collected at the urban area of Aveiro, with a special focus on the assessment of the influence of different meteorological conditions. In order to assess the chemical complexity of the WSOM from urban aerosols, their structural characteristics were studied by means of Fourier transform infrared infrared - Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) and solid-state cross polarization with magic angle spinning 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (CPMAS 13C NMR) spectroscopies, as well as their elemental composition. The structural characterization of aerosol WSOM samples collected in the urban area highlighted a highly complex mixture of functional groups. It was concluded that aliphatic and aromatic structures, hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups are characteristic to all samples. The semi-quantitative assessment of the CPMAS 13C NMR data showed different distributions of the various functional groups between the aerosol samples collected at different seasons. Moreover, the presence of signals typical of lignin-derived structures in both CPMAS 13C NMR and FTIR-ATR spectra of the WSOM samples from the colder seasons, highlights the major contribution of biomass burning processes in domestic fireplaces, during low temperature conditions, into the bulk chemical properties of WSOM from urban aerosols. A comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC x LC) method, on-line coupled to a diode array, fluorescence, and evaporative light scattering detectors, was employed for resolving the chemical heterogeneity of the aerosol WSOM samples and, simultaneously, to map the hydrophobicity versus the molecular weight distribution of the samples. The LC x LC method employed a mixed-mode hydrophilic interaction column operating under aqueous reversed phase mode in the first dimension, and a size-exclusion column in the second dimension, which was found to be useful for separating the aerosol WSOM samples into various fractions with distinct molecular weight and hydrophobic features. The estimative of the average molecular weight (Mw) distribution of the urban aerosol WSOM samples ranged from 48 to 942 Da and from 45 to 1241 Da in terms of UV absorption and fluorescence detection, respectively. Findings suggest that smaller Mw group fractions seem to be related to a more hydrophobic nature.

Multilayered micro/nanocrystalline CVD diamond coatings for biotribology

In the present work multilayered micro/nanocrystalline (MCD/NCD) diamond coatings were developed by Hot Filament Chemical Vapour Deposition (HFCVD). The aim was to minimize the surface roughness with a top NCD layer, to maximize adhesion onto the Si3N4 ceramic substrates with a starting MCD coating and to improve the mechanical resistance by the presence of MCD/NCD interfaces in these composite coatings. This set of features assures high wear resistance and low friction coefficients which, combined to diamond biocompatibility, set this material as ideal for biotribological applications. The deposition parameters of MCD were optimized using the Taguchi method, and two varieties of NCD were used: NCD-1, grown in a methane rich gas phase, and NCD-2 where a third gas, Argon, was added to the gas mixture. The best combination of surface pre-treatments in the Si3N4 substrates is obtained by polishing the substrates with a 15 μm diamond slurry, further dry etching with CF4 plasma for 10 minutes and final ultrasonic seeding in a diamond powder suspension in ethanol for 1 hour. The interfaces of the multilayered CVD diamond films were characterized with high detail using HRTEM, STEM-EDX and EELS. The results show that at the transition from MCD to NCD a thin precursor graphitic film is formed. On the contrary, the transition of the NCD to MCD grade is free of carbon structures other than diamond, as a result of the richer atomic hydrogen content and of the higher substrate temperature for MCD deposition. At those transitions, WC nanoparticles were found due to contamination from the filament, being also present at the first interface of the MCD layer with the silicon nitride substrate. In order to study the adhesion and mechanical resistance of the diamond coatings, indentation and particle jet blasting tests were conducted, as well as tribological experiments with homologous pairs. Indentation tests proved the superior behaviour of the multilayered coatings that attained a load of 800 N without delamination, when compared to the mono and bilayered ones. The multilayered diamond coatings also reveal the best solid particle erosion resistance, due to the MCD/NCD interfaces that act as crack deflectors. These results were confirmed by an analytical model on the stress field distribution based on the von Mises criterion. Regarding the tribological testing under dry sliding, multilayered coatings also exhibit the highest critical load values (200N for Multilayers with NCD-2). Low friction coefficient values in the range μ=0.02- 0.09 and wear coefficient values in the order of ~10-7 mm3 N-1 m-1 were obtained for the ball and flat specimens indicating a mild wear regime. Under lubrication with physiological fluids (HBSS e FBS), lower wear coefficient values ~10-9-10-8 mm3 N-1 m-1) were achieved, governed by the initial surface roughness and the effective contact pressure.

Valorization of solid wastes from cellulose and paper industry

This thesis reports in detail studies of industrial solid wastes valorization as alternative raw materials. All tested wastes are classified as non-hazardous and are generated in the pulp and paper process, including primary sludge, dregs, grits, lime mud and bottom ash (this generated in a process that occurs in parallel to the production of cellulose, whose aim is the production of energy to supply the plant through the combustion of forest biomass in fluidized bed). A detailed general characterization was performed at each waste and according to their characteristics, they were selected some applications in materials with potential use, specifically in Fibercement, Bituminous Mixture for regularization layer and industrial mortars (rendering mortars and cementitious-adhesive). After decided to application each waste was specifically tested to proceed the setting up of formulations containing different content of waste in replacement of the raw conventional material. As an isolated case, the bottom ash was tested not only as an alternative raw material for construction materials, but also it was tested for its use in fluidized bed in which the waste is generated as raw material. Both dregs and bottom ash had undergone special treatment to make possible to obtain a better quality of waste in order do not compromise the final product characteristics and process. The dregs were tested in bituminous mixtures as received and also washed (on the laboratory scale to remove soluble salts) and bottom ash were washed and screened in industrial scale (for removal of soluble salts, especially chlorides and coarse fraction particles elimination - particles larger than 1 mm size). The remaining residues form used in such as received avoiding additional costs. The results indicated potential and some limitations for each application to the use of these wastes as alternative raw material, but in some cases, the benefits in relation to valorization overlap with its limitations in both aspects, environmental and economic.

Electromechanical properties of engineered lead free potassium sodium niobate based materials

K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN), is the most promising lead free material for substituting lead zirconate titanate (PZT) which is still the market leader used for sensors and actuators. To make KNN a real competitor, it is necessary to understand and to improve its properties. This goal is pursued in the present work via different approaches aiming to study KNN intrinsic properties and then to identify appropriate strategies like doping and texturing for designing better KNN materials for an intended application. Hence, polycrystalline KNN ceramics (undoped, non-stoichiometric; NST and doped), high-quality KNN single crystals and textured KNN based ceramics were successfully synthesized and characterized in this work. Polycrystalline undoped, non-stoichiometric (NST) and Mn doped KNN ceramics were prepared by conventional ceramic processing. Structure, microstructure and electrical properties were measured. It was observed that the window for mono-phasic compositions was very narrow for both NST ceramics and Mn doped ceramics. For NST ceramics the variation of A/B ratio influenced the polarization (P-E) hysteresis loop and better piezoelectric and dielectric responses could be found for small stoichiometry deviations (A/B = 0.97). Regarding Mn doping, as compared to undoped KNN which showed leaky polarization (P-E) hysteresis loops, B-site Mn doped ceramics showed a well saturated, less-leaky hysteresis loop and a significant properties improvement. Impedance spectroscopy was used to assess the role of Mn and a relation between charge transport – defects and ferroelectric response in K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN) and Mn doped KNN ceramics could be established. At room temperature the conduction in KNN which is associated with holes transport is suppressed by Mn doping. Hence Mn addition increases the resistivity of the ceramic, which proved to be very helpful for improving the saturation of the P-E loop. At high temperatures the conduction is dominated by the motion of ionized oxygen vacancies whose concentration increases with Mn doping. Single crystals of potassium sodium niobate (KNN) were grown by a modified high temperature flux method. A boron-modified flux was used to obtain the crystals at a relatively low temperature. XRD, EDS and ICP analysis proved the chemical and crystallographic quality of the crystals. The grown KNN crystals exhibit higher dielectric permittivity (29,100) at the tetragonal-to-cubic phase transition temperature, higher remnant polarization (19.4 μC/cm2) and piezoelectric coefficient (160 pC/N) when compared with the standard KNN ceramics. KNN single crystals domain structure was characterized for the first time by piezoforce response microscopy. It could be observed that <001> - oriented potassium sodium niobate (KNN) single crystals reveal a long range ordered domain pattern of parallel 180° domains with zig-zag 90° domains. From the comparison of KNN Single crystals to ceramics, It is argued that the presence in KNN single crystal (and absence in KNN ceramics) of such a long range order specific domain pattern that is its fingerprint accounts for the improved properties of single crystals. These results have broad implications for the expanded use of KNN materials, by establishing a relation between the domain patterns and the dielectric and ferroelectric response of single crystals and ceramics and by indicating ways of achieving maximised properties in KNN materials. Polarized Raman analysis of ferroelectric potassium sodium niobate (K0.5Na0.5)NbO3 (KNN) single crystals was performed. For the first time, an evidence is provided that supports the assignment of KNN single crystals structure to the monoclinic symmetry at room temperature. Intensities of A′, A″ and mixed A′+A″ phonons have been theoretically calculated and compared with the experimental data in dependence of crystal rotation, which allowed the precise determination of the Raman tensor coefficients for (non-leaking) modes in monoclinic KNN. In relation to the previous literature, this study clarifies that assigning monoclinic phase is more suitable than the orthorhombic one. In addition, this study is the basis for non-destructive assessments of domain distribution by Raman spectroscopy in KNN-based lead-free ferroelectrics with complex structures. Searching a deeper understanding of the electrical behaviour of both KNN single crystal and polycrystalline materials for the sake of designing optimized KNN materials, a comparative study at the level of charge transport and point defects was carried out by impedance spectroscopy. KNN single crystals showed lower conductivity than polycrystals from room temperature up to 200 ºC, but above this temperature polycrystalline KNN displays lower conductivity. The low temperature (T < 200 ºC) behaviour reflects the different processing conditions of both ceramics and single crystals, which account for less defects prone to charge transport in the case of single crystals. As temperature increases (T > 200 ºC) single crystals become more conductive than polycrystalline samples, in which grain boundaries act as barriers to charge transport. For even higher temperatures the conductivity difference between both is increased due to the contribution of ionic conduction in single crystals. Indeed the values of activation energy calculated to the high temperature range (T > 300 ºC) were 1.60 and 0.97 eV, confirming the charge transport due to ionic conduction and ionized oxygen vacancies in single crystals and polycrystalline KNN, respectively. It is suggested that single crystals with low defects content and improved electromechanical properties could be a better choice for room temperature applications, though at high temperatures less conductive ceramics may be the choice, depending on the targeted use. Aiming at engineering the properties of KNN polycrystals towards the performance of single crystals, the preparation and properties study of (001) – oriented (K0.5Na0.5)0.98Li0.02NbO3 (KNNL) ceramics obtained by templated grain growth (TGG) using KNN single crystals as templates was undertaken. The choice of KNN single crystals templates is related with their better properties and to their unique domain structure which were envisaged as a tool for templating better properties in KNN ceramics too. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed for the templated ceramics a monoclinic structure at room temperature and a Lotgering factor (f) of 40% which confirmed texture development. These textured ceramics exhibit a long range ordered domain pattern consisting of 90º and 180º domains, similar to the one observed in the single crystals. Enhanced dielectric (13017 at TC), ferroelectric (2Pr = 42.8 μC/cm2) and piezoelectric (d33 = 280 pC/N) properties are observed for textured KNNL ceramics as compared to the randomly oriented ones. This behaviour is suggested to be due to the long range ordered domain patterns observed in the textured ceramics. The obtained results as compared with the data previously reported on texture KNN based ceramics confirm that superior properties were found due to ordered repeated domain pattern. This study provides an useful approach towards properties improvement of KNN-based piezoelectric ceramics. Overall, the present results bring a significant contribution to the pool of knowledge on the properties of sodium potassium niobate materials: a relation between the domain patterns and di-, ferro-, and piezo-electric response of single crystals and ceramics was demonstrated and ways of engineering maximised properties in KNN materials, for example by texturing were established. This contribution is envisaged to have broad implications for the expanded use of KNN over the alternative lead-based materials.

Development of polymeric materials to inhibit bacterial quorum sensing

Bacterial infections are an increasing problem for human health. In fact, an increasing number of infections are caused by bacteria that are resistant to most antibiotics and their combinations. Therefore, the scientific community is currently searching for new solutions to fight bacteria and infectious diseases, without promoting antimicrobial resistance. One of the most promising strategies is the disruption or attenuation of bacterial Quorum Sensing (QS), a refined system that bacteria use to communicate. In a QS event, bacteria produce and release specific small chemicals, signal molecules - autoinducers (AIs) - into the environment. At the same time that bacterial population grows, the concentration of AIs in the bacterial environment increases. When a threshold concentration of AIs is reached, bacterial cells respond to it by altering their gene expression profile. AIs regulate gene expression as a function of cell population density. Phenotypes mediated by QS (QSphenotypes) include virulence factors, toxin production, antibiotic resistance and biofilm formation. In this work, two polymeric materials (linear polymers and molecularly imprinted nanoparticles) were developed and their ability to attenuate QS was evaluated. Both types of polymers should to be able to adsorb bacterial signal molecules, limiting their availability in the extracellular environment, with expected disruption of QS. Linear polymers were composed by one of two monomers (itaconic acid and methacrylic acid), which are known to possess strong interactions with the bacterial signal molecules. Molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (MIP NPs) are particles with recognition capabilities for the analyte of interest. This ability is attained by including the target analyte at the synthesis stage. Vibrio fischeri and Aeromonas hydrophila were used as model species for the study. Both the linear polymers and MIP NPs, tested free in solutions and coated to surfaces, showed ability to disrupt QS by decreasing bioluminescence of V. fischeri and biofilm formation of A. hydrophila. No significant effect on bacterial growth was detected. The cytotoxicity of the two types of polymers to a fibroblast-like cell line (Vero cells) was also tested in order to evaluate their safety. The results showed that both the linear polymers and MIP NPs were not cytotoxic in the testing conditions. In conclusion, the results reported in this thesis, show that the polymers developed are a promising strategy to disrupt QS and reduce bacterial infection and resistance. In addition, due to their low toxicity, solubility and easy integration by surface coating, the polymers have potential for applications in scenarios where bacterial infection is a problem: medicine, pharmaceutical, food industry and in agriculture or aquaculture.

Severe plastic deformation of Al–Zn alloys

In this work, the R&D work mainly focused on the mechanical and microstructural analysis of severe plastic deformation (SPD) of Al–Zn alloys and the development of microstructure–based models to explain the observed behaviors is presented. Evolution of the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–30wt% Zn alloy after the SPD by the high–pressure torsion (HPT) has been investigated in detail regarding the increasing amount of deformation. SPD leads to the gradual grain refinement and decomposition of the Al–based supersaturated solid solution. The initial microstructure of the Al–30wt% Zn alloy contains Al and Zn phases with grains sizes respectively of 15 and 1 micron. The SPD in compression leads to a gradual decrease of the Al and Zn phase grain sizes down to 4 microns and 252 nm, respectively, until a plastic strain of 0.25 is reached. At the same time, the average size of the Zn particles in the bulk of the Al grains increases from 20 to 60 nm and that of the Zn precipitates near or at the grain boundaries increases as well. This microstructure transformation is accompanied at the macroscopic scale by a marked softening of the alloy. The SPD produced by HPT is conducted up to a shear strain of 314. The final Al and Zn grains refine down to the nanoscale with sizes of 370 nm and 170 nm, respectively. As a result of HPT, the Zn–rich (Al) supersaturated solid solution decomposes completely and reaches the equilibrium state corresponding to room temperature and its leads to the material softening. A new microstructure–based model is proposed to describe the softening process occurring during the compression of the supersaturated Al–30wt% Zn alloy. The model successfully describes the above–mentioned phenomena based on a new evolution law expressing the dislocation mean free path as a function of the plastic strain. The softening of the material behavior during HPT process is captured very well by the proposed model that takes into consideration the effects of solid solution hardening and its decomposition, Orowan looping and dislocation density evolution. In particular, it is demonstrated that the softening process that occurs during HPT can be attributed mainly to the decomposition of the supersaturated solid solution and, in a lesser extent, to the evolution of the dislocation mean free path with plastic strain.

A interface carboneto de silício-solução aquosa e o enchimento por barbotina

Neste trabalho estudaram-se as interfaces carboneto de silício-solução aquosa e carbono-solução aquosa, com vista a uma melhor compreensão dos processos de floculaçáo e desfloculaçáo de suspensões de cada um daqueles materiais e de suas misturas. Os pós foram caracterizados por recurso a técnicas de sedimentação, microscopia electrónica de varrimento, difracçáo de raios-X, análises térmicas, espectroscopia de infra-vermelhos e picnometria de hélio. As suspensões foram caracterizadas por técnicas de microelectroforese, sedimentação e reologia. Estudou-se a influência de algumas variáveis mais importantes do processo de enchimento por barbotina como, por exemplo, o mecanismo e o grau de estabilização das suspensões, a concentração de sólidos, a distribuição granulométrica das partículas, e o tempo de envelhecimento das suspensões, na estrutura das partículas em suspensão e nas características dos corpos conformados por enchimento por barbotina. A cinética deste processo foi estudada sob o efeito de pressão aplicada e relacionada com a estrutura das partículas em suspensão e com a microstrutura dos corpos em verde. Estudaram-se os mecanismos da segregação de tamanhos de partículas em suspensão que ocorre durante o processo de enchimento por barbotina devidos aos efeitos da gravidade e da obstrução do bolo pelas partículas finas. Discutiram-se os domínios das variáveis do processo em que cada um daqueles efeitos é dominante e propôs-se um novo modelo para o fenómeno da segregação por efeito de obstrução capaz de interpretar os resultados observados neste trabalho e os encontrados na literatura. Estabeleceram-se correlações estreitas entre as variáveis do processo de enchimento por barbotina, a microestrutura dos corpos conformados e o seu comportamento durante a etapa da secagem. Procurou ainda avaliar-se a capacidade do enchimento por barbotina para preparar materiais compósitos de carboneto de silício e carbono com características adequadas para a sinterizaçáo reactiva.