Regulation of single exocytotic events by the cAMP signaling pathway

Permanece por esclarecer como a via de sinalização do cAMP modula a exocitose regulada. Os principais objetivos deste trabalho foram: i) avaliar o efeito do cAMP nos eventos exocitóticos, nas propriedades dos poros de fusão e na secreção hormonal; ii) perceber o impacto da sinalização por cAMP-HCN na exocitose e nas propriedades do poro de fusão; e iii) estudar as propriedades do poro de fusão na presença de um agente neurotóxico comum, como o alumínio. Lactotrofos, isolados a partir da hipófise anterior de ratos Wistar machos, foram usados como modelo celular. Os eventos unitários de fusão exocitótica e a prolactina (PRL) libertada foram avaliados, respetivamente, em ensaios eletrofisiológicos efectuados segundo a técnica de contacto hermético no modo sobre a célula aderida à pipeta porta-elétrodo e com recurso a métodos imunológicos de deteção. Os níveis intracelulares de cAMP foram aumentados por 3-isobutil-1-metilxantina (IMBX), forscolina e N6,2'-O-dibutiril adenosina- 3',5'-monofosfato cíclico (dbcAMP). A expressão dos canais HCN foi determinada por Western-blot, qRT-PCR e imunocitoquímica em combinação com microscopia confocal. Culturas primárias de lactotrofos foram também transfetadas com DNA plasmídico que codifica HCN2 juntamente com a proteína-verde-fluorescente e um agente farmacológico foi usado para avaliar o efeito de cAMP-HCN na exocitose. Observou-se que os lactotrofos responderam à forscolina e ao dbcAMP libertando PRL de um modo bifásico e dependente da concentração, uma vez que a secreção aumentou e diminuiu, respectivamente, na gama de baixas e altas concentrações. Os compostos que elevaram os níveis de cAMP aumentaram os eventos transientes e impediram a fusão completa. Além disso, o dbcAMP promoveu o aparecimento de eventos exocitóticos transientes de elevada periodicidade, cujos poros de fusão, de maior diâmetro, se mativeram abertos durante mais tempo. A expressão das quatro isoformas de HCN foi confirmada nos lactotrofos ao nível do mRNA e, tal como no coração, rim e hipófise, o mais abundante codifica a isoforma HCN2. Nos lactotrofos com sobre-expressão desta isoforma, o dbcAMP não só aumentou a frequência dos eventos transientes e a condutância dos poros, mas também a frequência dos eventos de fusão completa. Enquanto o bloqueador dos canais HCN, ZD7288, reduziu a frequência dos eventos transientes e de fusão completa desencadeados por dbcAMP e diminuiu o diâmetro dos poros de fusão. A simultânea diminuição da libertação de PRL, da frequência dos eventos transientes e do diâmetro dos poros de fusão representaram as principais alterações observados após pré-tratamento dos lactotrofos com concentração micromolar de alumínio. Em conclusão, os resultados demonstram que elevados níveis de cAMP reduzem a secreção de PRL devido à estabilização dos poros de fusão no estado de maior abertura. Além disso, a via de sinalização cAMP-HCN afecta a actividade exocitótica e modifica as propriedades dos poros de fusão, que parecem ser igualmente importantes na citotoxicidade induzida por alumínio.

Lanthanide-organic frameworks for optical and catalytic applications

Este projecto de doutoramento tem como objetivo isolar e caracterizar sistematicamente novos polímeros de coordenação, no estado sólido. A presença de grupos rígidos possuindo, em particular, átomos de oxigénio e de azoto, deverá induzir interessantes propriedades fotoluminescentes (rendimentos quânticos e tempos de vida elevados, assim como vias de transferência de energia eficientes), que poderão permitir a utilização dos compostos poliméricos na produção de dispositivos funcionais. As diferentes abordagens sintéticas foram ajustadas para cada material e basearam-se, preferencialmente, nas sínteses hidrotérmicas e nas assistidas por radiação de microondas. A estrutura dos materiais foi elucidada a partir de métodos de difracção de raios X (de cristal único ou de pós) em conjunto com outras técnicas, tais como RMN de estado sólido, microscopia eletrónica, análises térmicas, espectroscopia vibracional e estudos de composição elementar. Os compostos microcristalinos foram sistematicamente estudados a fim de investigar outras propriedades além das de fotoluminescência. Alguns dos materiais revelaram multifuncionalidade apresentando simultaneamente tempos de vida na ordem dos milisegundos, elevados rendimentos quânticos e elevado desempenho como catalisadores heterogéneos. As propriedades magnéticas de um composto baseado em érbio foram igualmente estudadas, assim como as de adsorpção e permuta de solvente de uma estrutura porosa baseada em cério.

Estratégias de alteração da funcionalidade de proteínas de soja

Este trabalho teve como principal objetivo estudar e modificar as propriedades funcionais das proteínas de soja de forma a otimizar e diversificar a sua aplicação industrial. Para tal, foram propostas e estudadas quatro estratégias: i) extração do isolado de proteínas de soja (IPS) a partir de diferentes matérias-primas, ii) adição de galactomananas (GM) com graus de ramificação e massas moleculares diferentes, iii) hidrólise enzimática controlada das proteínas de soja, iv) processamento por alta pressão hidrostática. O estudo e a interpretação da influência destas estratégias sobre as propriedades funcionais das proteínas de soja, nomeadamente, na capacidade gelificante e emulsionante, foram realizados recorrendo fundamentalmente a ensaios reológicos dinâmicos a baixas deformação, espectroscopia de infravermelho, electroforeses, calorimetria diferencial de varrimento e ensaios de microscopia confocal de varrimento laser. O estudo da extração e caracterização dos isolados de proteínas de soja obtidos a partir de diferentes matérias-primas permitiu concluir que as caraterísticas físico-químicas dos isolados são dependentes da origem da matéria-prima de extração e da severidade dos tratamentos industriais prévios à extração do isolado. Contudo, as propriedades viscoelásticas dos géis obtidos por aquecimento controlado não foram significativamente distintas embora tenha sido possível relacionar o grau de agregação com a diminuição da temperatura de gelificação e com o aumento inicial dos módulos viscoelásticos. As alterações sofridas pelos isolados de origem comercial mostraram ser irreversíveis resultando em géis menos rígidos e com maior caráter viscoso. A adição de galactomanana alterou significativamente o mecanismo de gelificação induzido termicamente das proteínas de soja, bem como as propriedades viscoelásticas dos géis e a microestrutura dos géis, demonstrando-se a ocorrência de separação de fases, em virtude da incompatibilidade termodinâmica entre os biopolímeros, resultando em géis mais rígidos e no decréscimo da temperatura de gelificação. A extensão destas alterações foi dependente da massa molecular, grau de ramificação e da razão IPS/GM. O efeito da hidrólise enzimática por ação da bromelina, nas propriedades gelificantes e emulsionantes das proteínas de soja, mostrou ser dependente do grau de hidrólise (GH). Valores de GH inferiores a 15 % melhoraram as propriedades gelificantes das proteínas de soja. Por outro lado, o aumento do GH teve um efeito negativo nas propriedades emulsionantes, o qual foi atenuado por adição da goma de alfarroba, com efeito positivo na gelificação das proteínas de soja. A concentração crítica limite de compatibilidade entre os hidrolisados de proteína de soja e a goma de alfarroba aumentou com o decréscimo do GH e da massa molecular do polissacacrídeo. O efeito da AP sobre as propriedades físico-químicas e funcionais dos IPS foi influenciado pela origem do isolado e pelas condições de tratamento. O processamento até 100 MPa desencadeou um aumento da atividade emulsionante e considerável melhoria da capacidade gelificante. Contudo, valores de pressão superiores promoveram a desnaturação das proteínas constituintes dos isolados, resultando no decréscimo da temperatura de gelificação e numa re-associação das subunidades proteicas, diminuindo a elasticidade dos géis finais. Os resultados sugeriram que as alterações nas proteínas de soja promovidas durante o tratamento por AP constituem um fator limitante para o desdobramento e re-associação durante o aquecimento térmico, necessários para a formação e fortalecimento de gel formado. O processamento por AP influenciou a estrutura secundária e a microestrutura das amostras. A presença de GA teve um papel baroprotetor. Assim, com este trabalho demonstrou-se que com as estratégias seguidas para manipulação das propriedades funcionais de proteínas de soja, nomeadamente através da adição de um polissacarídeo com propriedades estruturais controladas, da adequada combinação da adição de um polissacarídeo neutro com a hidrólise controlada das proteínas ou com tratamento por alta pressão, é possível a criação de novas funcionalidades, com utilidade no desenvolvimento de novas formulações alimentares, permitindo expandir a aplicação destas proteínas vegetais.

Quantum criptography in optical fibers

As comunicações quânticas aplicam as leis fundamentais da física quântica para codificar, transmitir, guardar e processar informação. A mais importante e bem-sucedida aplicação é a distribuição de chaves quânticas (QKD). Os sistemas de QKD são suportados por tecnologias capazes de processar fotões únicos. Nesta tese analisamos a geração, transmissão e deteção de fotões únicos e entrelaçados em fibras óticas. É proposta uma fonte de fotões única baseada no processo clássico de mistura de quatro ondas (FWM) em fibras óticas num regime de baixas potências. Implementamos essa fonte no laboratório, e desenvolvemos um modelo teórico capaz de descrever corretamente o processo de geração de fotões únicos. O modelo teórico considera o papel das nãolinearidades da fibra e os efeitos da polarização na geração de fotões através do processo de FWM. Analisamos a estatística da fonte de fotões baseada no processo clássico de FWM em fibras óticas. Derivamos um modelo teórico capaz de descrever a estatística dessa fonte de fotões. Mostramos que a estatística da fonte de fotões evolui de térmica num regime de baixas potências óticas, para Poissoniana num regime de potências óticas moderadas. Validamos experimentalmente o modelo teórico, através do uso de fotodetetores de avalanche, do método estimativo da máxima verossimilhança e do algoritmo de maximização de expectativa. Estudamos o processo espontâneo de FWM como uma fonte condicional de fotões únicos. Analisamos a estatística dessa fonte em termos da função condicional de coerência de segunda ordem, considerando o espalhamento de Raman na geração de pares de fotões, e a perda durante a propagação de fotões numa fibra ótica padrão. Identificamos regimes apropriados onde a fonte é quase ideal. Fontes de pares de fotões implementadas em fibras óticas fornecem uma solução prática ao problema de acoplamento que surge quando os pares de fotões são gerados fora da fibra. Exploramos a geração de pares de fotões através do processo espontâneo de FWM no interior de guias de onda com suceptibilidade elétrica de terceira ordem. Descrevemos a geração de pares de fotões em meios com elevado coeficiente de absorção, e identificamos regimes ótimos para o rácio contagens coincidentes/acidentais (CAR) e para a desigualdade de Clauser, Horne, Shimony, and Holt (CHSH), para o qual o compromisso entre perda do guia de onda e não-linearidades maximiza esses parâmetros.

Metal-organic frameworks based on phosphonate linkers

During the last few decades, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), also known as Coordination Polymers, have attracted worldwide research attentions due to their incremented fascinating architectures and unique properties. These multidimensional materials have been potential applications in distinct areas: gas storage and separation, ion exchange, catalysis, magnetism, in optical sensors, among several others. The MOF research group at the University of Aveiro has prepared MOFs from the combination of phosphonate organic primary building units (PBUs) with, mainly, lanthanides. This thesis documents the last findings in this area involving the synthesis of multidimensional MOFs based on four di- or tripodal phosphonates ligands. The organic PBUs were designed and prepared by selecting and optimizing the best reaction conditions and synthetic routes. The self-assembly between phosphonate PBUs and rare-earths cations led to the formation of several 1D, 2D and 3D families of isotypical MOFs. The preparation of these materials was achieved by using distinct synthetic approaches: hydro(solvo)thermal, microwave- and ultrasound-assisted, one-pot and ionothermal synthesis. The selection of the organic PBUs showed to have an important role in the final architectures: while flexible phosphonate ligands afforded 1D, 2D and dense 3D structures, a large and rigid organic PBU isolated a porous 3D MOF. The crystal structure of these materials was successfully unveiled by powder or single-crystal X-ray diffraction. All multidimensional MOFs were characterized by standard solid-state techniques (FT-IR, electron microscopy (SEM and EDS), solid-state NMR, elemental and thermogravimetric analysis). Some MOF materials exhibited remarkable thermal stability and robustness up to ca. 400 ºC. The intrinsic properties of some MOFs were investigated. Photoluminescence studies revealed that the selected organic PBUs are suitable sensitizers of Tb3+ leading to the isolation of intense green-emitting materials. The suppression of the O−H quenchers by deuteration or dehydration processes improves substantially the photoluminescence of the optically-active Eu3+-based materials. Some MOF materials exhibited high heterogeneous catalytic activity and excellent regioselectivity in the ring-opening reaction of styrene oxide (PhEtO) with methanol (100% conversion of PhEtO at 55 ºC for 30 min). The porous MOF material was employed in gas separation processes. This compound showed the ability to separate propane over propylene. The ionexchanged form of this material (containing K+ cations into its network) exhibited higher affinity for CO2 being capable to separate acetylene over this environment non-friendly gas.

Correlação entre argamassas e betões com base em análise reométrica

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo principal estudar a correlação no estado fresco e no estado endurecido entre argamassas e betões com pozolanas, nomeadamente, um metacaulino e uma diatomite. Este trabalho procurou também otimizar a utilização dos materiais pozolânicos na produção de argamassas e betões. O estudo do comportamento reológico inicia-se com a avaliação da argamassa padrão e do betão padrão, utilizando para tal reómetros adequados a cada material. O comportamento reológico das argamassas com pozolanas foi analisado em função do comportamento da argamassa padrão. Verificou-se que é possível ajustar o comportamento reológico de argamassas com pozolanas ao comportamento da argamassa padrão e, deste modo, obter-se também betões correspondentes (com pozolanas) dentro do intervalo de trabalhabilidade pretendido e pré-definido para o betão padrão. Também foi possível concluir que, até um determinado teor de material pozolânico, se verificava uma correlação entre os parâmetros reológicos (viscosidade e tensão de cedência) das argamassas e os seus betões correspondentes. Na caracterização das argamassas e betões no estado endurecido, verificou-se a existência de uma correlação entre a resistência à compressão das argamassas e as resistências dos betões correspondentes para a maioria das formulações. Quando o ajuste de trabalhabilidade foi efetuado através da alteração do teor de água, apenas as formulações com metacaulino apresentavam uma relação linear entre as resistências das argamassas e a dos betões correspondentes. Usando um agente redutor de água de amassadura para o ajuste de trabalhabilidade, as formulações com metacaulino continuam a apresentar uma relação linear entre as resistências das argamassas e as resistências dos betões. As formulações mistas, com metacaulino e diatomite, também apresentam uma relação linear entre o valor das resistências das argamassas e dos betões. As composições com diatomite não mostram esta relação linear entre a resistência das argamassas e a resistência dos betões, embora exista uma correlação entre elas. O estudo de algumas propriedades no estado endurecido de betões mostrou que a utilização de água como elemento de ajuste de trabalhabilidade diminui sempre a resistência à compressão dos betões com o aumento do teor em pozolana. O uso de um agente redutor de água de amassadura, principalmente no caso da utilização do metacaulino, aumenta a resistência dos betões face ao padrão devido à sua maior reatividade pozolânica relativamente à diatomite. Estas tendências para os resultados observados na resistência mecânica foram também visíveis no módulo de elasticidade e justificáveis pela evolução da microestrutura avaliada conjuntamente por porosimetria, análises térmicas e microscopia eletrónica de varrimento. Finalmente, no estudo da influência dos materiais pozolânicos sobre a durabilidade dos betões, especificamente sobre a resistência à penetração de cloretos, ambas as pozolanas mostraram um efeito bloqueador à penetração de cloretos e, também aqui esse efeito foi mais evidente em composições com metacaulino e na presença de um agente redutor de água de amassadura.

New oxomolybdenum(VI) hybrid materials

In this thesis, 2,2’-bipyridine (bipy), di-tert-butyl-2,2’-bipyridine (di-t-Bubipy), 2,2’-bipyridine-5,5’-dicarboxylic acid (H2bpdc), 2-[3(5)-pyrazolyl]pyridine (pzpy) and 2-(1-pentyl-3-pyrazolyl)pyridine (pent-pp) ligands were used as the N,N-chelate ligands in the formation of discrete [MoO2Cl2L]-type complexes. These complexes were employed as precursors for the preparation in aqueous media of oxomolybdenum(VI) products with a wide range of structural diversity. Three distinct heating methods were studied: hydrothermal, reflux or microwave-assisted synthesis. An alternative reaction with the inorganic molybdenum(VI) trioxide (MoO3) and the ligands di-t-Bu-bipy, H2bpdc and pzpy was also investigated under hydrothermal conditions. The distinct nature of the N,N-chelate ligands and/or the heating method employed promoted the isolation of a series of new oxomolybdenum(VI) hybrid materials that clearly reflected the strong structure-directing influence of these ligands. Thus, this thesis describes the synthesis and characterization of the discrete mononuclear [MoO2Cl2(pent-pp)], the dinuclear [Mo2O6(di-t-Bu-bipy)2] and the octanuclear [Mo8O22(OH)4(di-t-Bu-bipy)4] complexes as well as the highly unique polymeric materials {[MoO3(bipy)][MoO3(H2O)]}n, (DMA)[MoO3(Hbpdc)]·nH2O, [Mo3O9(pzpy)]n and [Mo2O6(pent-pp)]n (fine structural details of compound [Mo2O6(pent-pp)]n are presently unknown; however, characterization data strongly pointed toward a polymeric oxide hybrid compound). The catalytic behaviour of the discrete complexes and the polymeric compounds was tested in olefin epoxidation reactions. Compounds [Mo3O9(pzpy)]n and [Mo2O6(pent-pp)]n acted as sources of soluble active species that where identified as the oxodiperoxido complexes [MoO(O2)2(pzpy)] and [MoO(O2)2(pent-pp)], respectively. The majority of the compounds here presented were fully characterized by using solid-state techniques, namely elemental analyses, thermogravimetry, FT-IR, solid-state NMR, electron microscopy and powder X-ray diffraction (both from laboratory and/or synchrotron sources).

Técnicas de monitorização em redes ópticas de próxima geração

In this work several techniques to monitor the performance of optical networks were developed. These techniques are dedicated either to the measurement of the data signal parameters (optical signal to noise ratio and dispersion) or to the detection of physical failures on the network infrastructure. The optical signal to noise ratio of the transmitted signal was successfully monitored using methods based on the presence of Bragg gratings imprinted on high birefringent fibres that allowed the distinction of the signal from the noise due to its polarization properties. The monitoring of the signal group-velocity dispersion was also possible. In this case, a method based on the analysis of the electric spectrum of the signal was applied. It was experimentally demonstrated that this technique is applicable on both amplitude and phase modulated signals. It was also developed a technique to monitor the physical infrastructure of an optical access network. Once again, the application of Bragg gratings (this time imprinted on standard single mode fibres) was the basis of the developed method.

Characterization of water-soluble organic matter from urban aerosols

Water-soluble organic matter (WSOM) from atmospheric particles comprises a complex array of molecular structures that play an important role on the physic-chemical properties of atmospheric particles and, therefore, are linked to several global-relevant atmospheric processes which impact the climate and public health. Due to the large variety of sources and formation processes, adequate knowledge on WSOM composition and its effects on the properties of atmospheric aerosol are still limited. Therefore, this thesis aims at providing new insights on the molecular composition of WSOM from fine atmospheric aerosols typical of an urban area (Aveiro, Portugal). In a first step, adsorption phenomena of semivolatile organic compounds on quartz fibre filters employed in the collection of atmospheric aerosols were assessed. Afterwards, atmospheric aerosol samples were collected during fifteen months, on a weekly basis. A mass balance of aerosol samples was performed in order to set the relative contribution of elemental carbon, WSOM and water-insoluble organic matter to the aerosol mass collected at the urban area of Aveiro, with a special focus on the assessment of the influence of different meteorological conditions. In order to assess the chemical complexity of the WSOM from urban aerosols, their structural characteristics were studied by means of Fourier transform infrared infrared - Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) and solid-state cross polarization with magic angle spinning 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (CPMAS 13C NMR) spectroscopies, as well as their elemental composition. The structural characterization of aerosol WSOM samples collected in the urban area highlighted a highly complex mixture of functional groups. It was concluded that aliphatic and aromatic structures, hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups are characteristic to all samples. The semi-quantitative assessment of the CPMAS 13C NMR data showed different distributions of the various functional groups between the aerosol samples collected at different seasons. Moreover, the presence of signals typical of lignin-derived structures in both CPMAS 13C NMR and FTIR-ATR spectra of the WSOM samples from the colder seasons, highlights the major contribution of biomass burning processes in domestic fireplaces, during low temperature conditions, into the bulk chemical properties of WSOM from urban aerosols. A comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC x LC) method, on-line coupled to a diode array, fluorescence, and evaporative light scattering detectors, was employed for resolving the chemical heterogeneity of the aerosol WSOM samples and, simultaneously, to map the hydrophobicity versus the molecular weight distribution of the samples. The LC x LC method employed a mixed-mode hydrophilic interaction column operating under aqueous reversed phase mode in the first dimension, and a size-exclusion column in the second dimension, which was found to be useful for separating the aerosol WSOM samples into various fractions with distinct molecular weight and hydrophobic features. The estimative of the average molecular weight (Mw) distribution of the urban aerosol WSOM samples ranged from 48 to 942 Da and from 45 to 1241 Da in terms of UV absorption and fluorescence detection, respectively. Findings suggest that smaller Mw group fractions seem to be related to a more hydrophobic nature.

Phthalocyanines : interaction with carbon structures and as PDT agents

This dissertation describes the synthesis and characterization of different phthalocyanine (Pc) derivatives, as well as some porphyrins (Pors), for supramolecular interaction with different carbon nanostructures, to evaluate their potential application in electronic nanodevices. Likewise, it is also reported the preparation and biological evaluation of interesting phthalocyanine conjugates for cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT) and microorganisms photodynamic inactivation (PDI). The phthalonitrile precursors were prepared from commercial phthalonitriles by nucleophilic substitution of -NO2, -Cl, or -F groups, present in the phthalonitrile core, by thiol or pyridyl units. After the synthesis of these phthalonitriles, the corresponding Pcs were prepared by ciclotetramerization using a metallic salt as template at high temperatures. A second strategy involved the postfunctionalization of hexadecafluorophthalocyaninato zinc(II) through the adequate substituents of mercaptopyridine or cyclodextrin units on the macrocycle periphery. The different compounds were structurally characterized by diverse spectroscopic techniques, namely 1H, 13C and 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies (attending the elemental composition of each structure); absorption and emission spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry. For the specific photophysical studies were also used electrochemical characterization, femtosecond and raman spectroscopy, transmission electron and atomic force microscopy. It was highlighted the noncovalent derivatisation of carbon nanostructures, mainly single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT) and graphene nanosheets with the prepared Pc conjugates to study the photophysical properties of these supramolecular nanoassemblies. Also, from pyridyl-Pors and ruthenium phthalocyanines (RuPcs) were performed Por-RuPcs arrays via coordination chemistry. The results obtained of the novel supramolecular assemblies showed interesting electron donor-acceptor interactions and might be considered attractive candidates for nanotechnological devices. On the other hand, the amphiphilic phthalocyanine-cyclodextrin (Pc-CD) conjugates were tested in biological trials to assess their ability to inhibit UMUC- 3 human bladder cancer cells. The results obtained demonstrated that these photoactive conjugates are highly phototoxic against human bladder cancer cells and could be applied as promising PDT drugs.

Monte Carlo studies of phase transitions and adsorption : application to n-6 Lennard-Jones, C60 and zeolite systems

The solid-fluid transition properties of the n - 6 Lennard-Jones system are studied by means of extensive free energy calculations. Different values of the parameter n which regulates the steepness of the short-range repulsive interaction are investigated. Furthermore, the free energies of the n < 12 systems are calculated using the n = 12 system as a reference. The method relies on a generalization of the multiple histogram method that combines independent canonical ensemble simulations performed with different Hamiltonians and computes the free energy difference between them. The phase behavior of the fullerene C60 solid is studied by performing NPT simulations using atomistic models which treat each carbon in the molecule as a separate interaction site with additional bond charges. In particular, the transition from an orientationally frozen phase at low temperatures to one where the molecules are freely rotating at higher temperatures is studied as a function of applied pressure. The adsorption of molecular hydrogen in the zeolite NaA is investigated by means of grand-canonical Monte Carlo, in a wide range of temperatures and imposed gas pressures, and results are compared with available experimental data. A potential model is used that comprises three main interactions: van der Waals, Coulomb and induced polarization by the permanent electric field in the zeolite.

Estudo de defeitos em filmes finos de ZnO depositados por Rf-sputtering

Neste trabalho foram estudados diferentes filmes finos de ZnO depositados por Rf-Sputtering. Filmes finos de ZnO com diferentes propriedades óticas foram obtidos intencionalmente variando os parâmetros de deposição. De modo a correlacionar as propriedades óticas e estruturais com os parâmetros de deposição, foram utilizadas diferentes técnicas de caracterização avançadas, tais como, fotoluminescência, microscopia de força atómica, difração de raios- X e retrodispersão de Rutherford. Este trabalho centra-se na discussão e análise das bandas de emissão vermelha, verde e azul, comumente observadas em amostras de ZnO e cuja natureza tem sido objeto de grande controvérsia na literatura. A utilização de técnicas de caracterização estrutural revelou-se de extrema importância para correlacionar as propriedades físicas de composição e estrutura com os centros óticos observados nos filmes. Nesta base, foram propostos e discutidos diferentes modelos de recombinação ótica associados à qualidade estrutural dos filmes, considerando modelos de camadas que descrevem a heterogeneidade lateral e em profundidade. Desta análise verificou-se a presença de heterogeneidade estrutural e composicional, que aumenta a complexidade na compreensão da correlação dos parâmetros de deposição com as propriedades óticas dos filmes. Foi discutida a limitação e validade de diferentes modelos tendo em conta a presença da heterogeneidade existente nos filmes estudados. Este trabalho contribui assim para uma melhor compreensão da complexidade de interação dos diferentes defeitos e o seu efeito nas propriedades óticas, nomeadamente o papel dos defeitos de interface, na superfície, nas fronteiras de grão e junto ao substrato.

Materials and concepts for CO2 lean ironmaking by pyroelectrolysis

The main purpose of this PhD thesis was to provide convincing demonstration for a breakthrough concept of pyroelectrolysis at laboratory scale. One attempted to identify fundamental objections and/or the most critical constraints, to propose workable concepts for the overall process and for feasible electrodes, and to establish the main requirements on a clearer basis. The main effort was dedicated to studying suitable anode materials to be developed for large scale industrial units with molten silicate electrolyte. This concept relies on consumable anodes based on iron oxides, and a liquid Fe cathode, separated from the refractory materials by a freeze lining (solid) layer. In addition, one assessed an alternative concept of pyroelectrolysis with electron blocking membranes, and developed a prototype at small laboratory scale. The main composition of the molten electrolyte was based on a magnesium aluminosilicate composition, with minimum liquidus temperature, and with different additions of iron oxide. One studied the dynamics of devitrification of these melts, crystallization of iron oxides or other phases, and Fe2+/Fe3+ redox changes under laser zone melting, at different pulling rates. These studies were intended to provide guidelines for dissolution of raw materials (iron oxides) in the molten electrolyte, to assess compatibility with magnetite based consumable anodes, and to account for thermal gradients or insufficient thermal management in large scale cells. Several laboratory scale prototype cells were used to demonstrate the concept of pyroelectrolysis with electron blocking, and to identify the most critical issues and challenges. Operation with and without electron blocking provided useful information on transport properties of the molten electrolyte (i.e., ionic and electronic conductivities), their expected dependence on anodic and cathodic overpotentials, limitations in faradaic efficiency, and onset of side electrochemical reactions. The concept of consumable anodes was based on magnetite and derived spinel compositions, for their expected redox stability at high temperatures, even under oxidising conditions. Spinel compositions were designed for prospective gains in refractoriness and redox stability in wider ranges of conditions (T, pO2 and anodic overpotentials), without excessive penalty for electrical conductivity, thermomechanical stability or other requirements. Composition changes were also mainly based on components of the molten aluminosilicate melt, to avoid undue contamination and to minimize the dissolution rate of consumable anodes. Additional changes in composition were intended for prospective pyroelectrolysis of Fe alloys, with additions of different elements (Cr, Mn, Ni, Ti).

Asymmetric rolling of 5182 aluminium alloy and interstitial free steel sheets

This Ph.D. research focuses on asymmetric rolling (ASR), as an alternative method for improving mechanical responses of aluminium-magnesium alloy and interstitial free (IF) steel regarding industrial requirements. Aluminium alloys are attractive materials in various industries due to their appropriate properties such as low density and corrosion resistance; however, their low formability has limited their applications. As formability of aluminium alloys can be improved through texture development, part of this dissertation is dedicated to producing the desired crystallographic texture with the ASR process. Two types of ASR (i.e. reverse and continuous asymmetric rolling) were investigated. The impact of shear deformation imposed by ASR processes on developing the desirable texture and consequently on mechanical behaviours was observed. The developed shear texture increased the normal and also planar anisotropy. Texture evolution during plastic deformation as well as induced mechanical behaviour were simulated using the “self-consistent” and Taylor models. Interstitial free (IF) steel was the second material selected in this dissertation. Since IF steel is one of the most often used materials in automotive industries it was chosen to investigate the effect of shear deformation through ASR on its properties. Two types of reverse and continuous asymmetric rolling were carried out to deform IF steel sheets. The results of optical microscopy and atomic force microscopy observations showed no significant difference between the grains’ morphology of asymmetric and conventionally rolled samples, whereas the obtained results of transmission electron microscopy indicated that fine and equiaxed dislocation cells were formed through the asymmetric rolling process. This structure is due to imposed shear deformation during the ASR process. Furthermore, the mechanical behaviour of deformed and annealed sheets was evaluated through uniaxial tensile tests. Results showed that at low thickness reductions (18%) the asymmetric rolled sample presented higher stress than that of the conventionally rolled sheet; while for higher thickness reductions (60%) the trend was reversed. The texture analyses indicated that intense rolling texture components which developed through 60% thickness reduction of conventional rolling cause a relatively higher stress; on the contrary the fine structure resulting from ASR appears to be the source of higher stress observed after pre-deformation of 18%.

Ferroelectric : CNTs structures fabrication for advanced functional nano devices

This work is about the combination of functional ferroelectric oxides with Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes for microelectronic applications, as for example potential 3 Dimensional (3D) Non Volatile Ferroelectric Random Access Memories (NVFeRAM). Miniaturized electronics are ubiquitous now. The drive to downsize electronics has been spurred by needs of more performance into smaller packages at lower costs. But the trend of electronics miniaturization challenges board assembly materials, processes, and reliability. Semiconductor device and integrated circuit technology, coupled with its associated electronic packaging, forms the backbone of high-performance miniaturized electronic systems. However, as size decreases and functionalization increases in the modern electronics further size reduction is getting difficult; below a size limit the signal reliability and device performance deteriorate. Hence miniaturization of siliconbased electronics has limitations. On this background the Road Map for Semiconductor Industry (ITRS) suggests since 2011 alternative technologies, designated as More than Moore; being one of them based on carbon (carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene) [1]. CNTs with their unique performance and three dimensionality at the nano-scale have been regarded as promising elements for miniaturized electronics [2]. CNTs are tubular in geometry and possess a unique set of properties, including ballistic electron transportation and a huge current caring capacity, which make them of great interest for future microelectronics [2]. Indeed CNTs might have a key role in the miniaturization of Non Volatile Ferroelectric Random Access Memories (NVFeRAM). Moving from a traditional two dimensional (2D) design (as is the case of thin films) to a 3D structure (based on a tridimensional arrangement of unidimensional structures) will result in the high reliability and sensing of the signals due to the large contribution from the bottom electrode. One way to achieve this 3D design is by using CNTs. Ferroelectrics (FE) are spontaneously polarized and can have high dielectric constants and interesting pyroelectric, piezoelectric, and electrooptic properties, being a key application of FE electronic memories. However, combining CNTs with FE functional oxides is challenging. It starts with materials compatibility, since crystallization temperature of FE and oxidation temperature of CNTs may overlap. In this case low temperature processing of FE is fundamental. Within this context in this work a systematic study on the fabrication of CNTs - FE structures using low cost low temperature methods was carried out. The FE under study are comprised of lead zirconate titanate (Pb1-xZrxTiO3, PZT), barium titanate (BaTiO3, BT) and bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3, BFO). The various aspects related to the fabrication, such as effect on thermal stability of MWCNTs, FE phase formation in presence of MWCNTs and interfaces between the CNTs/FE are addressed in this work. The ferroelectric response locally measured by Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM) clearly evidenced that even at low processing temperatures FE on CNTs retain its ferroelectric nature. The work started by verifying the thermal decomposition behavior under different conditions of the multiwall CNTs (MWCNTs) used in this work. It was verified that purified MWCNTs are stable up to 420 ºC in air, as no weight loss occurs under non isothermal conditions, but morphology changes were observed for isothermal conditions at 400 ºC by Raman spectroscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). In oxygen-rich atmosphere MWCNTs started to oxidized at 200 ºC. However in argon-rich one and under a high heating rate MWCNTs remain stable up to 1300 ºC with a minimum sublimation. The activation energy for the decomposition of MWCNTs in air was calculated to lie between 80 and 108 kJ/mol. These results are relevant for the fabrication of MWCNTs – FE structures. Indeed we demonstrate that PZT can be deposited by sol gel at low temperatures on MWCNTs. And particularly interesting we prove that MWCNTs decrease the temperature and time for formation of PZT by ~100 ºC commensurate with a decrease in activation energy from 68±15 kJ/mol to 27±2 kJ/mol. As a consequence, monophasic PZT was obtained at 575 ºC for MWCNTs - PZT whereas for pure PZT traces of pyrochlore were still present at 650 ºC, where PZT phase formed due to homogeneous nucleation. The piezoelectric nature of MWCNTs - PZT synthesised at 500 ºC for 1 h was proved by PFM. In the continuation of this work we developed a low cost methodology of coating MWCNTs using a hybrid sol-gel / hydrothermal method. In this case the FE used as a proof of concept was BT. BT is a well-known lead free perovskite used in many microelectronic applications. However, synthesis by solid state reaction is typically performed around 1100 to 1300 ºC what jeopardizes the combination with MWCNTs. We also illustrate the ineffectiveness of conventional hydrothermal synthesis in this process due the formation of carbonates, namely BaCO3. The grown MWCNTs - BT structures are ferroelectric and exhibit an electromechanical response (15 pm/V). These results have broad implications since this strategy can also be extended to other compounds of materials with high crystallization temperatures. In addition the coverage of MWCNTs with FE can be optimized, in this case with non covalent functionalization of the tubes, namely with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). MWCNTs were used as templates to grow, in this case single phase multiferroic BFO nanorods. This work shows that the use of nitric solvent results in severe damages of the MWCNTs layers that results in the early oxidation of the tubes during the annealing treatment. It was also observed that the use of nitric solvent results in the partial filling of MWCNTs with BFO due to the low surface tension (<119 mN/m) of the nitric solution. The opening of the caps and filling of the tubes occurs simultaneously during the refluxing step. Furthermore we verified that MWCNTs have a critical role in the fabrication of monophasic BFO; i.e. the oxidation of CNTs during the annealing process causes an oxygen deficient atmosphere that restrains the formation of Bi2O3 and monophasic BFO can be obtained. The morphology of the obtained BFO nano structures indicates that MWCNTs act as template to grow 1D structure of BFO. Magnetic measurements on these BFO nanostructures revealed a week ferromagnetic hysteresis loop with a coercive field of 956 Oe at 5 K. We also exploited the possible use of vertically-aligned multiwall carbon nanotubes (VA-MWCNTs) as bottom electrodes for microelectronics, for example for memory applications. As a proof of concept BiFeO3 (BFO) films were in-situ deposited on the surface of VA-MWCNTs by RF (Radio Frequency) magnetron sputtering. For in situ deposition temperature of 400 ºC and deposition time up to 2 h, BFO films cover the VA-MWCNTs and no damage occurs either in the film or MWCNTs. In spite of the macroscopic lossy polarization behaviour, the ferroelectric nature, domain structure and switching of these conformal BFO films was verified by PFM. A week ferromagnetic ordering loop was proved for BFO films on VA-MWCNTs having a coercive field of 700 Oe. Our systematic work is a significant step forward in the development of 3D memory cells; it clearly demonstrates that CNTs can be combined with FE oxides and can be used, for example, as the next 3D generation of FERAMs, not excluding however other different applications in microelectronics.