Culturing freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera: a breakthrough in the conservation of an endangered species.

1. The freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera L. is globally endangered and is threatened by commercial exploitation, pollution and habitat loss throughout its range. Captive breeding would be a valuable tool in enhancing the status of M. margaritifera in the UK. 2. We have developed a semi-natural system for successfully infecting juvenile brown trout with glochidial M. margaritifera, and culturing juvenile mussels in experimental tanks where glochidial M. margaritifera can excyst from fish gills and settle into sediment. 3. Infected fish had less than 1% mortality. Levels of infection varied among fish. Two yearly cohorts of juvenile M. margaritifera were identified from samples of sediment taken from each experimental tank. Individuals range in size from 1.4 mm (2000 cohort) to >3 mm in length (1999 cohort). 4. The number of juvenile M. margaritifera present in the two experimental tanks are estimated to be between 3600 (tank A) and 0 (tank B) for the putative 1999 cohort and between 6000 (tank A) and 13 000 (tank B) for the putative 2000 cohort. 5. This pioneering method for large-scale cultivation of juvenile M. margaritifera is intermediate between the release of infected fish into rivers and the intensive cultivation systems developed in continental Europe and the USA for other species of unionid. This is the first time that large numbers of M. margaritifera have been cultured and represents a significant breakthrough in the conservation of this globally endangered Red Data List species. The method is straightforward and is most cost-effective when undertaken alongside established hatchery processes.

Quantitative analysis of the reactivity of formate species seen by DRIFTS over a Au/Ce(La)O2 water–gas shift catalyst: First unambiguous evidence of the minority role of formates as reaction intermediates

The reactivity of the species formed at the surface of a Au/Ce(La)O2 catalyst during the water������¢���¯���¿���½���¯���¿���½gas shift (WGS) reaction were investigated by operando diffuse reflectance Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) at the chemical steady state during isotopic transient kinetic analyses (SSITKA). The exchanges of the reaction product CO2 and of formate and carbonate surface species were followed during an isotopic exchange of the reactant CO using a DRIFTS cell as a single reactor. The DRIFTS cell was a modified commercial cell that yielded identical reaction rates to that measured over a quartz plug-flow reactor. The DRIFTS signal was used to quantify the relative oncentrations of the surface species and CO2. The analysis of the formate exchange curves between 428 and 493 K showed that at least two levels of reactivity were present. ������¢���¯���¿���½���¯���¿���½Slow formates������¢���¯���¿���½���¯���¿���½ displayed an exchange rate constant 10- to 20-fold slower than that of the reaction product CO2. ������¢���¯���¿���½���¯���¿���½Fast formates������¢���¯���¿���½���¯���¿���½ were exchanged on a time scale similar to that of CO2. Multiple nonreactive readsorption of CO2 took place, accounting for the kinetics of the exchange of CO2(g) and making it impossible to determine the number of active sites through the SSITKA technique. The concentration (in mol g������¢���¯���¿���½���¯���¿���½1) of formates on the catalyst was determined through a calibration curve and allowed calculation of the specific rate of formate decomposition. The rate of CO2 formation was more than an order of magnitude higher than the rate of decomposition of formates (slow + fast species), indicating that all of the formates detected by DRIFTS could not be the main reaction intermediates in the production of CO2. This work stresses the importance of full quantitative analyses (measuring both rate constants and adsorbate concentrations) when investigating the role of adsorbates as potential reaction intermediates, and illustrates how even reactive species seen by DRIFTS may be unimportant in the overall reaction scheme.

Cryptic species diversity in a widespread bumble bee complex revealed using mitochondrial DNA RFLPs

Cryptic species diversity is thought to be common within the class Insecta, posing problems for basic ecological and population genetic studies and conservation management. Within the temperate bumble bee (Bombus spp.) fauna, members of the subgenus Bombus sensu stricto are amongst the most abundant and widespread. However, their species diversity is controversial due to the extreme difficulty or inability morphologically to identify the majority of individuals to species. Our character-based phylogenetic analyses of partial CO1 (700 bp) from 39 individuals spread across their sympatric European ranges provided unequivocal support for five taxa (3-22 diagnostic DNA base pair sites per species). Inclusion of 20 Irish specimens to the dataset revealed >= 2.3% sequence divergence between taxa and 200 m) whilst B. cryptarum was relatively more abundant at higher altitudes. Bombus magnus was rarely encountered at urban sites. Both B. lucorum and B. terrestris are nowadays reared commercially for pollination and transported globally. Our RFLP approach to identify native fauna can underpin ecological studies of these important cryptic species as well as the impact of commercial bumble bees on them.

Hull fouling on commercial ships as a vector of macroalgal introduction

Hull fouling is thought to have been the vector of introduction for many algal species. We studied ships arriving at a Mediterranean harbour to clarify the present role of commercial cargo shipping in algal introductions. A total of 31 macroalgal taxa were identified from 22 sampled hulls. The majority of records (58%) were of species with a known cosmopolitan geographical distribution. Due to a prevalence of cosmopolitan species and a high turnover of fouling communities, species composition of assemblages did not appear to be influenced by the area of origin, length of ship or age of coating. In the light of the present results, hull fouling on standard trading commercial vessels does not seem to pose a significant risk for new macroalgal species introductions. However, a high proportion of non-cosmopolitan species found on a ship with non-toxic coating may modify this assessment, especially in the light of the increasing use of such coatings and the potential future changes in shipping routes.

The importance of stakeholder engagement in invasive species management: A cross-jurisdictional perspective in Ireland

The management of invasive non-native species is a frequent cause of conflict in the field of biodiversity conservation because perceptions of their costs and benefits differ among stakeholder groups. A lack of cohesion between scientific researchers, the commercial sector and policy makers lies at the root of a widespread failure to develop and implement sustainable management practices for invasive species. The crisis of this situation is intensified by drivers stemming from international conventions and directives to address invasive species issues. There are further direct conflicts between legislative instruments promoting biodiversity conservation on the one hand while liberalizing trade at the national, European and global level on the other. The island of Ireland provides graphic illustration of the importance of cross-jurisdictional approaches to biological invasions. Using primarily Irish examples in this review, we emphasize the importance of approaching risk assessment, risk reduction and control or eradication policies from a cost-efficient, highly flexible perspective, incorporating linkages between environmental, economic and social objectives. The need for consolidated policies between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland is particularly acute, though few model cross-border mechanisms for such consolidation are available. The importance of engaging affected stakeholders through positive interactions is discussed with regard to reducing the currently fragmented nature of invasive species management between the two jurisdictions.

Non-intrusive tracking of commercial broiler chickens in situ at different stocking densities

Unlike several other farm animal species, the broiler chicken remains unprotected by species-specific legislation. The densities at which broilers should be kept is a highly contentious issue-some studies have demonstrated increased welfare problems at higher densities, whilst a few others have, contrary to expectations, suggested that broilers may actually find crowds of other birds attractive. A tracking method was developed and used to provide an insight into the social preferences of commercial broiler chickens in situ-inside commercial, closed-system broiler houses. The aim was to simultaneously assess the relative impact of global measures of density, such as target and actual stocking densities and local measures of the social environment on the behaviour and route taken to feed by focal birds. Birds were tracked inside 20 commercial broiler houses across the UK. Results from this study show that stocking density per se seems to have little direct effect on the individual behaviours of focal broiler chickens. However, there may still be an indirect effect of stocking density on broiler behaviour, mediated through the local social environment. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Assessment of commercial sand barge radar for detecting overwintering diving ducks at Lough Neagh

Overwintering diving ducks at Lough Neagh have declined dramatically in recent years, but it has been suggested that on-to-offshore redistribution may have led to an underestimate of numbers. Most species feed nocturnally and their distribution at night is unknown. We used radar and visual observations from on board commercial sand barges to determine the diurnal distribution of diving duck flocks in an effort to assess the feasibility of using standard
boat-mounted radar to describe their nocturnal feeding distribution. Sand barge radar was poor in identifying flocks compared to independent visual observations as it was sensitive to interference by waves during windy conditions. However, visual observations were useful in describing diurnal distribution. Sand barges were on average 1.5km from shore when a flock of diving ducks was observed and the probability of detection declined with distance from shore. This supports the reliability of shore-based counts in monitoring and surveillance. Given the poor performance of commercially available boatmounted radar systems, we recommend the use of specialised terrestrial Bird Detecting Radar to determine the movements of diving ducks at Lough Neagh.

Towards an understanding of bacterial metabolites prodigiosin and violacein and their potential for use in commercial sunscreens

Synopsis
Objectives

To exploit the microbial ecology of bacterial metabolite production and, specifically, to: (i) evaluate the potential use of the pigments prodigiosin and violacein as additives to commercial sunscreens for protection of human skin, and (ii) determine antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (against pathogenic bacteria) for these two pigments.

Methods
Prodigiosin and violacein were used to supplement extracts of Aloe vera leaf and Cucumis sativus (cucumber) fruit which are known to have photoprotective activity, as well as some commercial sunscreen preparations. For each, sunscreen protection factors (SPFs) were determined spectrophotometrically. Assays for antimicrobial activity were carried out using 96-well plates to quantify growth inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Results
For the plant extracts, SPFs were increased by an order of magnitude (i.e. up to ~3.5) and those for the commercial sunscreens increased by 10–22% (for 4% w/w violacein) and 20–65% (for 4% w/w prodigiosin). The antioxidant activities of prodigiosin and violacein were approximately 30% and 20% those of ascorbic acid (a well-characterized, potent antioxidant). Violacein inhibited S. aureus (IC_{506.99 ± 0.146 μM) but not E. coli, whereas prodigiosin was effective against both of these bacteria (IC50 values were 0.68 ± 0.06 μM and 0.53 ± 0.03 μM, respectively).}

Conclusion
The bacterial pigments prodigiosin and violacein exhibited antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and were able to increase the SPF of commercial sunscreens as well as the extracts of the two plant species tested. These pigments have potential as ingredients for a new product range of and, indeed, represent a new paradigm for sunscreens that utilize substances of biological origin. We discussed the biotechnological potential of these bacterial metabolites for use in commercial sunscreens, and the need for studies of mammalian cells to determine safety.

Geographical variation in inorganic arsenic in paddy field samples and commercial rice from the Iberian Peninsula

This study investigated total arsenic and arsenic speciation in rice using ion chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (IC-ICP-MS), covering the main rice-growing regions of the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. The main arsenic species found were inorganic and dimethylarsinic acid. Samples surveyed were soil, shoots and field-collected rice grain. From this information soil to plant arsenic transfer was investigated plus the distribution of arsenic in rice across the geographical regions of Spain and Portugal. Commercial polished rice was also obtained from each region and tested for arsenic speciation, showing a positive correlation with field-obtained rice grain. Commercial polished rice had the lowest i-As content in Andalucia, Murcia and Valencia while Extremadura had the highest concentrations. About 26% of commercial rice samples exceeded the permissible concentration
for infant food production as governed by the European Commission. Some cadmium data is also presented, available with ICP-MS analyses, and show low concentration in rice samples.