Flow patterns and pressure drop of ionic liquid-water two-phase flows in microchannels

The two-phase flow of a hydrophobic ionic liquid and water was studied in capillaries made of three different materials (two types of Teflon, FEP and Tefzel, and glass) with sizes between 200µm and 270µm. The ionic liquid was 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis{(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl}amide, with density and viscosity of 1420kgm and 0.041kgms, respectively. Flow patterns and pressure drop were measured for two inlet configurations (T- and Y-junction), for total flow rates of 0.065-214.9cmh and ionic liquid volume fractions from 0.05 to 0.8. The continuous phase in the glass capillary depended on the fluid that initially filled the channel. When water was introduced first, it became the continuous phase with the ionic liquid forming plugs or a mixture of plugs and drops within it. In the Teflon microchannels, the order that fluids were introduced did not affect the results and the ionic liquid was always the continuous phase. The main patterns observed were annular, plug, and drop flow. Pressure drop in the Teflon microchannels at a constant ionic liquid flow rate, was found to increase as the ionic liquid volume fraction decreased, and was always higher than the single phase ionic liquid value at the same flow rate as in the two-phase mixture. However, in the glass microchannel during plug flow with water as the continuous phase, pressure drop for a constant ionic liquid flow rate was always lower than the single phase ionic liquid value. A modified plug flow pressure drop model using a correlation for film thickness derived for the current fluids pair showed very good agreement with the experimental data. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

An in situ spatially resolved method to probe gas phase reactions through a fixed bed catalyst

A new method to spatially probe heterogeneous catalysed reactions within a packed bed of catalyst has been developed. The spatial resolution is achieved using a stationary perforated capillary coupled to a mass spectrometer while the catalyst bed is moved. The oxidation of CO promoted by H-2 over a Pd catalyst has been used to demonstrate the technique.

An in situ spatially resolved analytical technique to simultaneously probe gas phase reactions and temperature within the packed bed of a plug flow reactor

This paper reports the detailed description and validation of a fully automated, computer controlled analytical method to spatially probe the gas composition and thermal characteristics in packed bed systems. As an exemplar, we have examined a heterogeneously catalysed gas phase reaction within the bed of a powdered oxide supported metal catalyst. The design of the gas sampling and the temperature recording systems are disclosed. A stationary capillary with holes drilled in its wall and a moveable reactor coupled with a mass spectrometer are used to enable sampling and analysis. This method has been designed to limit the invasiveness of the probe on the reactor by using the smallest combination of thermocouple and capillary which can be employed practically. An 80 mu m (O.D.) thermocouple has been inserted in a 250 mu m (O.D.) capillary. The thermocouple is aligned with the sampling holes to enable both the gas composition and temperature profiles to be simultaneously measured at equivalent spatially resolved positions. This analysis technique has been validated by studying CO oxidation over a 1% Pt/Al2O3 catalyst and the spatial resolution profiles of chemical species concentrations and temperature as a function of the axial position within the catalyst bed are reported.

Therapeutic effects of PPARα agonists on diabetic retinopathy in type 1 diabetes models

Retinal vascular leakage, inflammation, and neovascularization (NV) are features of diabetic retinopathy (DR). Fenofibrate, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor a (PPARa) agonist, has shown robust protective effects against DR in type 2 diabetic patients, but its effects on DR in type 1 diabetes have not been reported. This study evaluated the efficacy of fenofibrate on DR in type 1 diabetes models and determined if the effect is PPARa dependent. Oral administration of fenofibrate significantly ameliorated retinal vascular leakage and leukostasis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and in Akita mice. Favorable effects on DR were also achieved by intravitreal injection of fenofibrate or another specific PPARa agonist. Fenofibrate also ameliorated retinal NV in the oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) model and inhibited tube formation and migration in cultured endothelial cells. Fenofibrate also attenuated overexpression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and blocked activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 and nuclear factor-?B in the retinas of OIR and diabetic models. Fenofibrate's beneficial effects were blocked by a specific PPARa antagonist. Furthermore, Ppara knockout abolished the fenofibrate-induced downregulation of VEGF and reduction of retinal vascular leakage in DR models. These results demonstrate therapeutic effects of fenofibrate on DR in type 1 diabetes and support the existence of the drug target in ocular tissues and via a PPARa-dependent mechanism.

Mechanisms of modified LDL-induced pericyte loss and retinal injury in diabetic retinopathy

Aims/hypothesis: In previous studies we have shown that extravasated, modified LDL is associated with pericyte loss, an early feature of diabetic retinopathy (DR). Here we sought to determine detailed mechanisms of this LDLinduced pericyte loss.

Methods: Human retinal capillary pericytes (HRCP) were exposed to ‘highly-oxidised glycated’ LDL (HOG-LDL) (a model of extravasated and modified LDL) and to 4-hydroxynonenal or 7-ketocholesterol (components of oxidised LDL), or to native LDL for 1 to 24 h with or without 1 h of pretreatment with inhibitors of the following: (1) the scavenger receptor (polyinosinic acid); (2) oxidative stress (N-acetyl cysteine); (3) endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress (4-phenyl butyric acid); and (4) mitochondrial dysfunction (cyclosporin A). Oxidative stress, ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis and autophagy were assessed using techniques including western blotting, immunofluorescence, RT-PCR, flow cytometry and TUNEL assay. To assess the relevance of the results in vivo, immunohistochemistry was used to detect the ER stress chaperon, 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein, and the ER sensor, activating transcription factor 6, in retinas from a mouse model of DR that mimics exposure of the retina to elevated glucose and elevated LDL levels, and in retinas from human participants with and without diabetes and DR.

Results: Compared with native LDL, HOG-LDL activated oxidative and ER stress in HRCP, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis and autophagy. In a mouse model of diabetes and hyperlipidaemia (vs mouse models of either condition alone), retinal ER stress was enhanced. ER stress was also enhanced in diabetic human retina and correlated with the severity of DR.

Conclusions/interpretation: Cell culture, animal, and human data suggest that oxidative stress and ER stress are induced by modified LDL, and are implicated in pericyte loss in DR.

Pigment epithelium-derived factor mitigates inflammation and oxidative stress in retinal pericytes exposed to oxidized low-density lipoprotein

Oxidized and/or glycated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) may mediate capillary injury in diabetic retinopathy. The mechanisms may involve pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant effects on retinal capillary pericytes. In this study, these effects, and the protective effects of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), were defined in a primary human pericyte model. Human retinal pericytes were exposed to 100 microg/ml native LDL (N-LDL) or heavily oxidized glycated LDL (HOG-LDL) with or without PEDF at 10-160 nM for 24 h. To assess pro-inflammatory effects, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) secretion was measured by ELISA, and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation was detected by immunocytochemistry. Oxidative stress was determined by measuring intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) formation, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, and nitric oxide (NO) production. The results showed that MCP-1 was significantly increased by HOG-LDL, and the effect was attenuated by PEDF in a dose-dependent manner. PEDF also attenuated the HOG-LDL-induced NF-kappaB activation, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of PEDF on MCP-1 was at least partially through the blockade of NF-kappaB activation. Further studies demonstrated that HOG-LDL, but not N-LDL, significantly increased ONOO(-) formation, NO production, and iNOS expression. These changes were also alleviated by PEDF. Moreover, PEDF significantly ameliorated HOG-LDL-induced ROS generation through up-regulation of superoxide dismutase 1 expression. Taken together, these results demonstrate pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant effects of HOG-LDL on retinal pericytes, which were effectively ameliorated by PEDF. Suppressing MCP-1 production and thus inhibiting macrophage recruitment may represent a new mechanism for the salutary effect of PEDF in diabetic retinopathy and warrants more studies in future.

Intraretinal Leakage and Oxidation of LDL in Diabetic Retinopathy

Purpose: The pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy (DR) is not fully understood. Clinical studies suggest that dyslipidemia is associated with the initiation and progression of DR. However, no direct evidence supports this theory.

Methods: Immunostaining of apolipoprotein B100 (ApoB100, a marker of low-density lipoprotein [LDL]), macrophages, and oxidized LDL was performed in retinal sections from four different groups of subjects: nondiabetic, type 2 diabetic without clinical retinopathy, diabetic with moderate nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), and diabetic with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). Apoptosis was characterized using the TUNEL assay. In addition, in cell culture studies using in vitro-modi?ed LDL, the induction of apoptosis by heavily oxidized-glycated LDL (HOG-LDL) in human retinal capillary
pericytes (HRCPs) was assessed.

Results: Intraretinal immuno?uorescence of ApoB100 increased with the severity of DR. Macrophages were prominent only in sections from diabetic patients with PDR. Merged images revealed that ApoB100 partially colocalized with macrophages. Intraretinal oxidized LDL was absent in nondiabetic subjects but present in all three diabetic groups, increasing with the severity of DR. TUNEL-positive cells were present in retinas from diabetic subjects but absent in those from nondiabetic subjects. In cell culture, HOG-LDL induced the activation of caspase, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis in
HRCPs.

Conclusions: These ?ndings suggest a potentially important role for extravasated, modi?ed LDL in promoting DR by promoting apoptotic pericyte loss.

Effects of modified low-density lipoproteins on human retinal pericyte survival

According to a current paradigm cardiovascular diseases can be initiated by exposure of vascular cells to qualitatively modified low-density lipoproteins (LDL). Capillary leakage, an early feature of diabetic retinopathy, results in the exposure of retinal pericytes to modified LDL, including glycated (G-LDL) and heavily oxidized glycated LDL (HOG-LDL). We demonstrate here that modified LDL inhibits the proliferation and survival of cultured human retinal pericytes. Modified LDL also induced DNA fragmentation in bovine retinal pericytes. Overall, HOG-LDL produced a significantly higher extent of cytotoxicity and apoptosis in retinal pericytes. These results indicate that exposure of pericytes to HOG-LDL could be implicated in the development of diabetic retinopathy.

Nerve pathology in the type 1 diabetic dog: effects of treatment with sulindac

The purpose of this study was to define pathological abnormalities in the peripheral nerve of a large animal model of long-duration type 1 diabetes and also to determine the effects of treatment with sulindac. Detailed morphometric studies were performed to define nerve fiber and endoneurial capillary pathology in 6 control dogs, 6 type 1 diabetic dogs treated with insulin, and 6 type 1 diabetic dogs treated with insulin and sulindac for 4 years. Myelinated fiber and regenerative cluster density showed a non-significant trend toward a reduction in diabetic compared to control animals, which was prevented by treatment with sulindac. Unmyelinated fiber density did not differ among groups. However, diabetic animals showed a non-significant trend toward an increase in axon diameter (p <0.07), with a shift of the size frequency distribution towards larger axons, which was not prevented by treatment with sulindac. Endoneurial capillary density and luminal area showed a non-significant trend toward an increase in diabetic animals, which was prevented with sulindac treatment. Endoneurial capillary basement membrane area was significantly increased (p <0.05) in diabetic animals, but was not prevented with sulindac treatment. We conclude that the type 1 diabetic dog demonstrates minor structural abnormalities in the nerve fibers and endoneurial capillaries of the sciatic nerve, and treatment with sulindac ameliorates some but not all of these abnormalities.

Diabetic retinopathy: morphometric analysis of basement membrane thickening of capillaries in different retinal layers within arterial and venous environments

AIMS: To assess quantitatively variations in the extent of capillary basement membrane (BM) thickening between different retinal layers and within arterial and venous environments during diabetes. METHODS: One year after induction of experimental (streptozotocin) diabetes in rats, six diabetic animals together with six age-matched control animals were sacrificed and the retinas fixed for transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Blocks of retina straddling the major arteries and veins in the central retinal were dissected out, embedded in resin, and sectioned. Capillaries in close proximity to arteries or veins were designated as residing in either an arterial (AE) or a venous (VE) environment respectively, and the retinal layer in which each capillary was located was also noted. The thickness of the BM was then measured on an image analyser based two dimensional morphometric analysis system. RESULTS: In both diabetics and controls the AE capillaries had consistently thicker BMs than the VE capillaries. The BMs of both AE and VE capillaries from diabetics were thicker than those of capillaries in the corresponding retinal layer from the normal rats (p <or = 0.005). Also, in normal AE and VE capillaries and diabetic AE capillaries the BM in the nerve fibre layer (NFL) was thicker than that in either the inner (IPL) or outer (OPL) plexiform layers (p <or = 0.001). However, in diabetic VE capillaries the BMs of capillaries in the NFL were thicker than those of capillaries in the IPL (p <or = 0.05) which, in turn, had thicker BMs than capillaries in the OPL (p <or = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: The variation in the extent of capillary BM thickening between different retinal layers within AE and VE environments may be related to differences in levels of oxygen tension and oxidative stress in the retina around arteries compared with that around veins.

Ionizing radiation and the retina

This review considers the effects of ionizing radiation on the retina and examines the relationship between the natural course of radiation retinopathy and the radiobiology of the retinal vascular endothelial cell (RVEC). Radiation retinopathy presents clinically as a progressive pattern of degenerative and proliferative vascular changes, chiefly affecting the macula, and ranging from capillary occlusion, dilation, and microaneurysm formation, to telangiectasia, intraretinal microvascular abnormalities, and neovascularization. The total-radiation dose and fractionation schedule are the major determinants for the time of onset, rate of progression, and severity of retinopathy, although other factors such as concomitant chemotherapy and preexisting diabetes may exaggerate the vasculopathy by intensifying the oxygen-derived free-radical assault on the vascular cells. The differential radiosensitivity of RVECs is attributed to their nuclear chromatin conformation, their antioxidant status, and their environment. We propose pathogenetic mechanisms for radiation retinopathy and suggest that the peculiar latency and unique clinical pattern is related to the life cycle of the RVEC. A rationale is also proposed for the use of radiotherapy in the treatment of subneovascularization and age-related macular degeneration.

The combined effects of diabetes and ionising radiation on the rat retina: an ultrastructural study

The combined effect of STZ-diabetes and ionising radiation on the rat retina was investigated. Wistar rats, which had been diabetic for 6 months, were irradiated with a single dose of x-rays (1500 cGy) and the ultrastructural effects evaluated at 4-10 mths post-irradiation. At 4 months post-irradiation, the outer nuclear layer of the retina was greatly reduced in thickness and the photoreceptor outer segments were disorganised and reduced in length. In addition, the nerve fibre layer contained many cytoid bodies and there were many redundant basement membrane tubes throughout the inner retina. By 6 months post-irradiation, the photoreceptor cells were virtually absent, bringing the external limiting membrane into close apposition to the RPE. Throughout large areas of the outer retina, RPE cells were hypertrophic and some had proliferated into the inner retina. In many regions, proliferating retinal capillaries were observed within the RPE layer, and at 8 months post-irradiation, some vessels extended into the inner retina accompanied by RPE cells. At 10 months post-irradiation, the RPE was atrophic and degenerative with retinal glial cells coming into contact with Bruch's membrane. In some areas, the glia which had breached Bruch's membrane had invaded the underlying choroid. Where glial cells contacted the choriocapillaries, the vessels assumed the appearance of retinal vessels with plump endothelia and no fenestrations. This study has described a progressive inner retinal ischemia, with cytoid bodies, capillary non-perfusion and general atrophy of the inner retina intensifying markedly with increasing post-irradiation time.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Late ultrastructural changes in the retina of the rat following low-dose X-irradiation

This study describes ultrastructural changes in the pigmented hooded Lister rat retina, 3-12 months following X-irradiation with single doses of between 200 and 2000 cGy. The extreme radiosensitivity of the photoreceptor cells was underlined by the continued manifestation of fine structural changes and cell death up to 6 months post-radiation in animals receiving doses above 500 cGy. The retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells were more radioresistant than photoreceptors and RPE cell loss was only observed at doses of more than 1500 cGy. One year after irradiation with 1500 cGy the retinal vasculature showed capillary occlusion with some evidence of recanalisation. Telangiectasia was observed in the large retinal veins. Although the inner retinal neurones and glial cells showed no evidence of direct radiation damage, the nerve fibre layer adjacent to occluded retinal vessels demonstrated ultrastructural evidence of ischaemic neuropathy and retinal oedema. At doses above 1500 cGy the choriocapillaris showed platelet aggregation and capillary loss.

Radiation retinopathy--clinical, histopathological, ultrastructural and experimental correlations

Clinical, pathological and experimental studies of radiation retinopathy confirm that the primary vascular event is endothelial cell loss and capillary closure. Pericytes are less susceptible, but typically atrophy as the capillaries become non-functional. The immediate effects of radiation reflect interphase and early mitotic death of injured endothelial cells, whereas later changes may be attributed to delayed mitotic death of compromised endothelial cells as they attempt division in the ordinary course of repair and replacement. Capillary occlusion leads to the formation of dilated capillary collaterals which may remain serviceable and competent for years. Microaneurysms develop in acellular and poorly supported capillaries, predominantly on the arterial side of the circulation and adjacent to regions of poorly perfused retina. Alterations in haemodynamics produce large telangiectatic-like channels which, typically develop a thick collagenous adventitia and may become fenestrated. Limited capillary regeneration occurs, usually evident as recanalisation of arterioles or venules by new capillaries. Vitreo-retinal neovascularisation may occur where retinal ischaemia is widespread. Radiation produces an exaggerated vasculopathy in patients with diabetes mellitus, and five month streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats develop a severe ischaemic retinopathy with vitreoretinal neovascularisation when exposed to 1500 cGy of radiation. Later photocoagulation is useful in containing or reversing microvascular incompetence and vasoproliferation in some patients with advanced radiation retinopathy.

Electron microscopic features of experimental choroidal neovascularization

We produced choroidal neovascularization in the rhesus monkey by diminishing the blood supply to the inner retina and producing defects in Bruch's membrane by photocoagulation. The neovascular fronds which developed either infiltrated the subretinal space or proliferated through necrotic and gliotic retina into the vitreous cavity. Sequential electron microscopic sections of neovascular fronds in the subretinal space demonstrated that the advancing capillary sprouts were composed of primitive endothelial tubes surrounded by pericytes and enmeshed in a loose basement-membrane-like substance. More mature capillaris and displayed endothelial fenestrations and endothelial-pericyte membranous contacts. Large neovascular fronds developed major feeding vessels that closely resembled normal small choroidal arteries and veins. Retinal pigment epithelial cells in various guises were in constant association with proliferating neovascular networks.