Continuity and Change in the European Union’s Approach to Enlargement::Turkey and Central and Eastern Europe compared

Existing studies of European Union (EU) enlargement provide few answers to questions concerning continuity and change in the dynamics of the process. This article identifies a number of conditioning factors that have shaped the EU’s approach to eastern enlargement and traces elements of continuity and change in the EU’s handling of Turkey’s membership aspirations. The article focuses on three established factors – member state preferences, supranational activism and EU capacity – and two less prominent factors – public opinion and narrative frame

Genetic diversity of liver flukes (Fasciola hepatica) from Eastern Europe.

The genetic diversity of liver fluke populations in three different countries from Eastern Europe (Greece, Bulgaria, and Poland) in comparison with available data from other countries was determined. Specifically, SNPs from regions of two nuclear genes, 28S rDNA, ß-tubulin 3 and an informative region of the mitochondrial genome were examined. Two major lineages for the 28S rDNA gene based on the highly polymorphic 105th nucleotide position were found. These lineages were widely and almost equally spread not only through the countries studied but also in other investigated geographical areas. Two basic lineages and additional haplotypes were defined for the mtDNA gene region, consisting of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit III gene, transfer RNA histidine gene and cytochome b gene. The basic lineages were observed within Greek, Bulgarian, and Polish Fasciola hepatica populations but the distribution of additional haplotypes differed between the populations from the three countries. For the ß-tubulin 3 gene multiple polymorphic sites were revealed but no explicit clades. The SNPs were spread unequally in all studied geographical regions with an evident distinction between the Greek and Polish specimens. Additional genotypes for the 28S rDNA region as well as haplotypes of the mtDNA region that were typical for the Greek or Polish populations were observed. Significant polymorphisms for ß-tubulin 3 gene were displayed with decreasing percentage of presence within populations from Greece to Poland. There was an amino acid substitution in ß-tubulin 3 protein found only among Polish specimens. It is hypothesized that genotypic differences between Greek, Bulgarian, and Polish liver fluke populations are due to territorial division and genetic drift in past epochs.

Multiple origins of European populations of giant liver fluke Fascioloides magna (Trematoda: Fasciolidae), an invasive liver parasite of ruminants

The giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, liver parasite of free-living and domestic ruminants of Europe and North America, was analysed in order to determine the origin of European populations and to reveal the biogeography of this originally North American parasite on the European continent. The previously selected variable fragments of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1; 384 bp) and nicotinamid dehydrogenase subunit I (nad1; 405 bp) were applied as a tool. The phylogenetic trees and haplotype networks were constructed and the level of genetic structuring was evaluated using population genetic tools. In F. magna individuals originating from all European natural foci (Italy, Czech Republic, Danube floodplain forests) and from four of five major North American enzootic areas, 16 cox1 and 18 nad1 haplotypes were determined. The concatenated sequence set produced 22 distinct haplotypes. The European fluke populations were less diverse than those from North America in that they contained proportionately fewer haplotypes (8), while more substantial level of genetic diversity and higher number of haplotypes (15) were recorded in North America. Only one haplotype was shared between the European (Italy) and North American (USA/Oregon and Canada/Alberta) flukes supporting a western North American origin of the Italian F. magna population. Haplotypes found in Italy were distinct from those determined in the remaining European localities what indicates that introduction of F. magna onto the European continent is a result of more than one event. In Czech focus, a south-eastern US origin of giant liver fluke was revealed. Identical haplotypes, common for parasites from Czech Republic and from expanding focus of Danube floodplain forests, implies introduction of F. magna to the Danube region from an already established Czech focus.