Cryptic species diversity in a widespread bumble bee complex revealed using mitochondrial DNA RFLPs

Cryptic species diversity is thought to be common within the class Insecta, posing problems for basic ecological and population genetic studies and conservation management. Within the temperate bumble bee (Bombus spp.) fauna, members of the subgenus Bombus sensu stricto are amongst the most abundant and widespread. However, their species diversity is controversial due to the extreme difficulty or inability morphologically to identify the majority of individuals to species. Our character-based phylogenetic analyses of partial CO1 (700 bp) from 39 individuals spread across their sympatric European ranges provided unequivocal support for five taxa (3-22 diagnostic DNA base pair sites per species). Inclusion of 20 Irish specimens to the dataset revealed >= 2.3% sequence divergence between taxa and 200 m) whilst B. cryptarum was relatively more abundant at higher altitudes. Bombus magnus was rarely encountered at urban sites. Both B. lucorum and B. terrestris are nowadays reared commercially for pollination and transported globally. Our RFLP approach to identify native fauna can underpin ecological studies of these important cryptic species as well as the impact of commercial bumble bees on them.

Widespread dispersal of the microsporidian Nosema ceranae, an emergent pathogen of the western honey bee, Apis mellifera

The economically most important honey bee species, Apis mellifera, was formerly considered to be parasitized by one microsporidian, Nosema apis. Recently, [Higes, M., Martin, R., Meana, A., 2006. Nosema ceranae, a new microsporidian parasite in honeybees in Europe, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 92, 93-95] and [Huang, W.-F., Jiang, J.-H., Chen, Y.-W., Wang, C.-H., 2007. A Nosema ceranae isolate from the honeybee Apis mellifera. Apidologie 38, 30-37] used 16S (SSU) rRNA gene sequences to demonstrate the presence of Nosema ceranae in A. mellifera from Spain and Taiwan, respectively. We developed a rapid method to differentiate between N. apis and N. ceranae based on PCR-RFLPs of partial SSU rRNA. The reliability of the method was confirmed by sequencing 29 isolates from across the world (N = 9 isolates gave N. apis RFLPs and sequences, N = 20 isolates gave N. ceranae RFLPs and sequences; 100%, correct classification). We then employed the method to analyze N = 115 isolates from across the world. Our data, combined with N = 36 additional published sequences demonstrate that (i) N. ceranae most likely jumped host to A. mellifera, probably within the last decade, (ii) that host colonies and individuals may be co-infected by both microsporidia species, and that (iii) N. ceranae is now a parasite of A. mellifera across most of the world. The rapid, long-distance dispersal of N. ceranae is likely due to transport of infected honey bees by commercial or hobbyist beekeepers. We discuss the implications of this emergent pathogen for worldwide beekeeping. (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Morphological and molecular characters reveal differentiation in a Neotropical social bee, Melipona beecheii (Apidae : Meliponini)

Morphometrics and DNA microsatellites were used to analyse the genetic structure of populations of the stingless bee M. beecheii from two extremes of its geographic range. The results showed that populations from Costa Rica and Yucatan exhibit substantial phenotypic and molecular differentiation. Bees from Yucatan were smaller and paler than those from Costa Rica. The value of multilocus F-ST = 0.280 (P <0.001) confirmed that there were significant molecular genetic differences between the two populations. Populations showed significant deviation from Hardy Weinberg equilibrium and the values of FIS (the inbreeding coefficient) were positive for Costa Rica = 0.416 and the Yucatan Peninsula = 0.193, indicating a lack of heterozygotes in both populations possibly due to inbreeding. The DNA sequence of 678 bp of the mitochondrial gene COI differed between populations by 1.2%. The results of this study should be considered in conservation programmes, particularly with regard to the movement of colonies between regions.

An optimized method for the generation of AFLP markers in a stingless bee (Melipona quadrifasciata) reveals a high degree of intracolonial genetic polymorphism

This study describes an optimized protocol for the generation of Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) markers in a stingless bee. Essential modifications to standard protocols are a restriction enzyme digestion (EcoRI and Tru1I) in a two-step procedure, combined with a touchdown program in the selective PCR amplification step and product labelling by incorporation of alpha[P-33]dATP. In an analysis of 75 workers collected from three colonies of Melipona quadrifasciata we obtained 719 markers. Analysis of genetic variability revealed that on average 32% of the markers were polymorphic within a colony. Compared to the overall percentage of polymorphism (44% of the markers detected in our bee samples), the observed rates of within-colony polymorphism are remarkably high, considering that the workers of each colony were all of spring of a singly mated queen.

Satellite flies (Leucophora personata, Diptera : Anthomyiidae) and other dipteran parasites of the communal bee Andrena agilissima (Hymenoptera : Andrenidae) on the island of Elba, Italy

Solitary and presocial aculueate Hymenoptera are parasitized by a range of dipteran species in the families Axithomyiidae, Bombyliidae, Conopidae, Phoridae, and Sarcophagidae that are likely to impact on their hosts. We undertook a study over several years of a univoltine and communal bee, Andrena agilissima, and its main dipteran parasites, in particular the satellite fly Leucophora personata (Diptera: Anthomyiidae). Behavioural and ecological data were collected from one nesting aggregation of the host bee on the island of Elba, Italy, from 1993 to 2003, and from a foraging site of the bee, ca 5 km from the nesting aggregation. Other Diptera associated with A. agilissmia at the field site were the bee fly Bombylius fimbriatus (Bombyliidae), the conopid fly Zodion cinereum (Conopidae), and the scuttle fly Megaselia andrenae (Phoridae). The phenology of the Diptera broadly overlapped with that of their host across the season of activity (end of April and all of May). Diurnal activity patterns differed slightly; L. personata in particular was active at the host's nesting site before A. agilissima. Female satellite flies also showed a range of behaviours in gaining entry to a host nest. We summarize published data on this and other Leucophora species that parasitize Andrena host bees. Host bees returning to their nests occasionally undertook zig-zag flight manoeuvres if followed by a satellite fly that were generally successful in evading the fly. Satellite flies that entered a nest, presumably to oviposit, were less likely to remain therein if another host bee entered the same nest, suggesting that one advantage to communal nesting for this host is a reduction in brood cell parasitism by L. personata. We provide the first clear evidence for parasitism by a Zodion of any Andrena host. Both L. personata and M. andrenae concentrated their parasitic activities in the zone of the host nesting aggregation with highest nest densities. Three of the Diptera, L. personata, B. fimbriatus, and Z. cinereum, seemed to have extremely low rates of parasitism whilst that of M. andrenae appeared low. Though they have refined parasitic behaviour that allows them to gain entry into host nests (L. personata, B. fimbriatus, and M. andrenae) or to parasitize adults (Z. cinercum), these parasites seem not to impact upon the dynamics of the host A. agilissima at the nesting aggregation, and the host possesses traits to reduce parasitism.

Paternity frequency and maternity of males in some stingless bee species

In monogynous hymenopteran societies, the number of mates of a queen strongly influences the potential for conflict between workers and queens over the maternity of males. Queens always 'prefer' their own sons to sons of workers, regardless of queen mating frequency. When a queen mates once, workers are more closely related to, and therefore are expected to prefer, their own sons and then sons of sisters to sons of the queen. However, if effective paternity frequency exceeds 2, workers on average should prefer queen-produced males to males produced by their sisters. We studied the queen mating frequency of seven stingless bee species: the Mexican species Scaptotrigona mexicana , S. pectoralis and the Australian species Austroplebeia symei , Trigona clypearis , T. hockingsi , T. mellipes and T. sapiens . We then determined whether males arise from eggs laid by workers or queens in A. symei , T. clypearis , T. hockingsi and T. mellipes . We show that all seven species investigated are most likely singly mated and that the queen dominates reproduction. This indicates that the queen's mating frequency alone does not determine whether workers or the queen produces the males.