Frequency Stability Issues for Islanded Power Systems

Frequency stability has not necessarily been a major problem for the majority of power systems in the past. However, for economic and environmental reasons, power systems are now operated closer to stability limits to maximise the use of the existing networks. Therefore, introduction of new, more efficient and renewable generation technologies, and their effect on the power system must be fully understood if a reliable and secure electricity supply is to be maintained. Using the Northern Ireland, and interconnected Republic of Ireland electricity networks as a case study, this paper addresses some of the issues regarding integration and modelling of combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT), and wind turbine generator (WTG) technology on a small islanded power system.

Stateful Intrusion Detection for IEC 60870-5-104 SCADA Security

Cyber threats in Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems have the potential to render physical damage and jeopardize power system operation, safety and stability. SCADA systems were originally designed with little consideration of escalating cyber threats and hence the problem of how to develop robust intrusion detection technologies to tailor the requirements of SCADA is an emerging topic and a big challenge. This paper proposes a stateful Intrusion Detection System (IDS) using a Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) method to improve the cyber-security of SCADA systems using the IEC 60870-5-104 protocol which is tailored for basic telecontrol communications. The proposed stateful protocol analysis approach is presented that is designed specifically for the IEC 60870-5-104 protocol. Finally, the novel intrusion detection approach are implemented and validated.

Ruedas metafísicas: ‘Personality’ and ‘Essence’ in Remedios Varo’s Paintings

While most critics have noted the profound affinity Remedios Varo felt with the ideas she encountered in the esoteric philosophy of G. I. Gurdjieff and his pupil P. D. Ouspensky, only in recent years have they begun to uncover the extent to which this teaching informed her richly symbolic work. This article shows how Gurdjieff’s views on ‘personality’ and ‘essence’, as outlined in Ouspensky’s exposition of his master’s ideas, In Search of the Miraculous, informed Varo’s depiction of a quest for spiritual equilibrium. In doing so, it brings to light the importance Varo placed in the development of a robust, spiritual Self.

Improving Feasibility of Point to Point Operations Through Civil Aerial Refuelling

Re-imagining of the aerial transportation system has become increasingly important as the need for significant environmental and economic efficiency gains has become ever more prevalent. A number of studies have highlighted the benefits of the adoption of air to air refuelling within civil aviation. However, it also opens up the potential for increased flexibility in operations through smaller aircraft, shifting emphasis away from the traditional hub and spoke method of operation towards the more flexible Point to Point operations. It is proposed here that one technology can act as an enabler for the other, realising benefits that neither can realise as a standalone. The impact of an air-toair refuelling enabled point to point system is discussed, and the affect on economic and environmental cost metrics relative to traditional operations evaluated. An idealised airport configuration study shows the difference in fuel burn for point to point networks to vary from -23% to 28% from that of Hub and Spoke depending on the configuration. The sensitive natures of the concepts are further explored in a second study based on real airport configurations. The complex effect of the choice of a Point to Point or Hub and Spoke system on fuel burn, operating cost and revenue potential is highlighted. Fuel burn savings of 15% can be experienced with AAR over traditional refuelling operations, with point to point networks increasing the available seat miles (by approximately 20%) without a proportional increase in operating cost or fuel.

Theoretical and experimental understanding on ethanol steam reforming for H-2 production

H2 is considered to be a potential alternative fuel due to its high energy density by weight and working with pollution free. Currently, ethanol conversion to hydrogen has drawn much attention because it provides a viable way for H2 production from renewable resources. In this work, we combined theoretical and experimental efforts to study the reaction mechanism of ethanol steam reforming on Rh catalysts. The results suggest that acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) is an important reaction intermediate in the reaction on nano-sized Rh catalyst. Our theoretical work suggests that the H-bond effect significantly modifies the ethanol decomposition pathway. The possible reaction pathway on Rh (211) surface is suggested as: CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2O → CH3CHO → CH3CO → CH3+CO → CH2+CO → CH+CO → C+CO, followed by the water gas shift reaction to yield H2 and CO2. It was found that that the water gas shift reaction is paramount in the ethanol steam reforming process.

A Numerical Study of Inlet Geometry for a Low Inertia Mixed Flow Turbocharger Turbine

Mixed flow turbines can offer improvements over typical radial turbines used in automotive turbochargers, with regards to transient performance and low velocity ratio efficiency. Turbine rotor mass dominates the rotating inertia of the turbocharger, and any reductions of mass in the outer radii of the wheel, including the rotor back-disk, can significantly reduce this inertia and improve the acceleration of the assembly. Off-design, low velocity ratio conditions are typified by highly tangential flow at the rotor inlet and a non-zero inlet blade angle is preferred for such operating conditions. This is achievable in a Mixed Flow Turbine without increasing bending stresses within the rotor blade, which is beneficial in high speed and high inlet temperature turbine design. A range of mixed flow turbine rotors was designed with varying cone angle and inlet blade angle and each was assessed at a number of operating points. These rotors were based on an existing radial flow turbine, and both the hub and shroud contours and exducer geometry were maintained. The inertia of each rotor was also considered. The results indicated that there was a trade-off between efficiency and inertia for the rotors and certain designs may be beneficial for the transient performance of downsized, turbocharged engines.

A Numerical and Experimental Assessment of the Use of a Turbine Utilizing Splitter Blades for an Automotive Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Automotive manufacturers require improved part load engine performance to further improve fuel economy. For a swing vane VGS (Variable Geometry Stator) turbine this means a more closed stator vane, to deal with the low MFRs (Mass Flow Rates), high PRs (Pressure Ratios) and low rotor rotational speeds. During these conditions the turbine is operating at low velocity ratios. As more energy is available at high pressure ratios and during lower turbocharger rotational speeds, a turbine which is efficient at these conditions is desirable. Another key aspect for automotive manufacturers is engine responsiveness. High inertia designs result in “turbo lag” which means an increased time before the target boost pressure is reached. Therefore, designs with improved performance at low velocity ratios, reduced inertia or an increased swallowing capacity are the current targets for turbocharger manufacturers.

To try to meet these design targets a CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) study was performed on a turbine wheel using splitter blades. A number of parameters were investigated. These included splitter blade merdional length, blade number and blade angle distribution.

The numerical study was performed on a scaled automotive VGS. Three different stator vane positions have been analysed. A single passage CFD model was developed and used to provide information on the flow features affecting performance in both the stator vanes and turbine.

Following the CFD investigation the design with the best compromise in terms of performance, inertia and increased MFP (Mass Flow Parameter) was selected for manufacture and testing. Tests were performed on a scaled, low temperature turbine test rig. The aerodynamic flow path of the gas stand was the same as that investigated during the CFD. The test results revealed a design which had similar performance at the closed stator vane positions when compared to the baseline wheel. At the maximum MFR stator vane condition a drop of −0.6% pts in efficiency was seen. However, 5.5% increase in MFP was obtained with the additional benefit of a drop in rotor inertia of 3.7%, compared to the baseline wheel.

A Parametric Study Of A Turbogenerator On A Diesel-Electric Hybrid Bus

The fuel consumption of automotive vehicles has become a prime consideration to manufacturers and operators as fuel prices continue to rise steadily, and legislation governing toxic emissions becomes ever more strict. This is particularly true for bus operators as government fuel subsidies are cut or removed.

In an effort to reduce the fuel consumption of a diesel-electric hybrid bus, an exhaust recovery turbogenerator has been selected from a wide ranging literature review as the most appropriate method of recovering some of the wasted heat in the exhaust line. This paper examines the effect on fuel consumption of a turbogenerator applied to a 2.4-litre diesel engine.

A validated one-dimensional engine model created using Ricardo WAVE was used as a baseline, and was modified in subsequent models to include a turbogenerator downstream, and in series with, the turbocharger turbine. A fuel consumption map of the modified engine was produced, and an in-house simulation tool was then used to examine the fuel economy benefit delivered by the turbogenerator on a bus operating on various drive-cycles.

A parametric study is presented which examined the performance of turbogenerators of various size and power output. The operating strategy of the turbogenerator was also discussed with a view to maximising turbine efficiency at each operating point.

The performance of the existing turbocharger on the hybrid bus was also investigated; both the compressor and turbine were optimised and the subsequent benefits to the fuel consumption of the vehicle were shown.

The final configuration is then presented and the overall improvement in fuel economy of the hybrid bus was determined over various drive-cycles.

Assessing 1D Loss Models for the Off-Design Performance Prediction of Automotive Turbocharger Compressors

Single-Zone modelling is used to assess three 1D impeller loss model collections. An automotive turbocharger centrifugal compressor is used for evaluation. The individual 1D losses are presented relative to each other at three tip speeds to provide a visual description of each author’s perception of the relative importance of each loss. The losses are compared with their resulting prediction of pressure ratio and efficiency, which is further compared with test data; upon comparison, a combination of the 1D loss collections is identified as providing the best performance prediction. 3D CFD simulations have also been carried out for the same geometry using a single passage model. A method of extracting 1D losses from CFD is described and utilised to draw further comparisons with the 1D losses. A 1D scroll volute model has been added to the single passage CFD results; good agreement with the test data is achieved. Short-comings in the existing 1D loss models are identified as a result of the comparisons with 3D CFD losses. Further comparisons are drawn between the predicted 1D data, 3D CFD simulation results, and the test data using a nondimensional method to highlight where the current errors exist in the 1D prediction.

An Evaluation of 1D Design Methods for the Off-Design Performance Prediction of Automotive Turbocharger Compressors

Several one-dimensional design methods have been used to predict the off-design performance of three modern centrifugal compressors for automotive turbocharging. The three methods used are single-zone, two-zone, and a more recent statistical method. The predicted results from each method are compared against empirical data taken from standard hot gas stand tests for each turbocharger. Each of the automotive turbochargers considered in this study have notably different geometries and are of varying application. Due to the non-adiabatic test conditions, the empirical data has been corrected for the effect of heat transfer to ensure comparability with the 1D models. Each method is evaluated for usability and accuracy in both pressure ratio and efficiency prediction. The paper presents an insight into the limitations of each of these models when applied to one-dimensional automotive turbocharger design, and proposes that a corrected single-zone modelling approach has the greatest potential for further development, whilst the statistical method could be immediately introduced to a design process where design variations are limited.

An Investigation Into Improving Off-Design Performance in a Turbocharger Turbine Utilizing Non-Radial Blading

Off-design performance now plays a vital role in the design decisions made for automotive turbocharger turbines. Of particular interest is extracting more energy at high pressure ratios and lower rotational speeds. In this region of operation the U/C value will be low and the rotor will experience high values of positive incidence at the inlet. The positive incidence causes flow to separate on the suction surface and produces high blade loading at inlet, which drives tip leakage. A CFD analysis has been carried out on a number of automotive turbines utilizing non-radial fibred blading. To help improve secondary flows yet meet stress requirements a number of designs have been investigated. The inlet blade angle has been modified in a number of ways. Firstly, the blading has been adjusted as to provide a constant back swept angle in the span wise direction. Using the results of the constant back swept blading studies, the back swept blade angle was then varied in the span wise direction. In addition to this, in an attempt to avoid an increase in stress, the effect of varying the leading edge profile of the blade was investigated. It has been seen that off-design performance is improved by implementing back swept blading at the inlet. Varying the inlet angle in the span wise direction provided more freedom for meeting stress requirements and reduces the negative impact on blade performance at the design point. The blade leading edge profile was seen to offer small improvements during off-design operation with minimal effects on stress within the rotor. However, due to the more pointed nature of the leading edge, the rotor was less tolerant to flow misalignment at the design point.

Investigations Into the Performance of a Turbogenerated Biogas Engine During Speed Transients

Turbogenerating is a form of turbocompounding whereby a Turbogenerator is placed in the exhaust stream of an internal combustion engine. The Turbogenerator converts a portion of the expelled energy in the exhaust gas into electricity which can then be used to supplement the crankshaft power. Previous investigations have shown how the addition of a Turbogenerator can increase the system efficiency by up to 9%. However, these investigations pertain to the engine system operating at one fixed engine speed. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how the system and in particular the Turbogenerator operate during engine speed transients. On turbocharged engines, turbocharger lag is an issue. With the addition of a Turbogenerator, these issues can be somewhat alleviated. This is done by altering the speed at which the Turbogenerator operates during the engine’s speed transient. During the transients, the Turbogenerator can be thought to act in a similar manner to a variable geometry turbine where its speed can cause a change in the turbocharger turbine’s pressure ratio. This paper shows that by adding a Turbogenerator to a turbocharged engine the transient performance can be enhanced. This enhancement is shown by comparing the turbogenerated engine to a similar turbocharged engine. When comparing the two engines, it can be seen that the addition of a Turbogenerator can reduce the time taken to reach full power by up to 7% whilst at the same time, improve overall efficiency by 7.1% during the engine speed transient.