Genetic evidence supports recolonisation by Mya arenaria of western Europe from North America

The softshell clam Mya arenaria (L.) is currently widespread on the east and west coasts of North America. This bivalve also occurs on western European shores, where the post-Pleistocene origin of the species, whether introduced or relict, has been debated. We collected 320 M. arenaria from 8 locations in Europe and North America. Clams (n = 84) from 7 of the locations were examined for mitochondrial DNA variation by sequencing a section of the cytochrome oxidase 1 (COX1) gene. These were analysed together with 212 sequences, sourced from GenBank, from the same gene from 12 additional locations, chiefly from eastern North America but also 1 site each from western North America and from western Europe. Ten microsatellite loci were also investigated in all 320 clams. Nuclear markers showed reduced levels of variation in certain European samples. The same common COX1 haplotypes and microsatellite alleles were present throughout the range of M. arenaria, although significant differences were identified in haplotypic and allelic composition between many samples, particularly those from the 2 continents (Europe and North America). These findings support the hypothesis of post-Pleistocene colonisation of European shores from eastern North America (and the recorded human transfer of clams from the east to the west coast of North America in the 19th century).

Phylogeographic structure of brown trout (Salmo trutta) in Britain and Ireland: glacial refugia, post-glacial colonisation, and origins of sympatric populations

The phylogeographical structure of brown trout Salmo trutta in Britain and Ireland was studied using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of four mitochondrial DNA segments (16S/ND1, ND5/6, COXIII/ND5 and ND5/12S). Analysis of 3636 individuals from 83 sites-morphotypes revealed a total of 25 haplotypes. These haplotypes were nested in seven two-step clades. Although there was a clear geographical patterning to the occurrence of derived clades, admixture among ancestral clades was extensive throughout the studied area. A relevant feature of the data was that some populations contained mixtures of highly divergent clades. This type II phylogeographic pattern is uncommon in nature. Clade intermixing is likely to have taken place during earlier interglacials as well as since the Last Glacial Maximum. The anadromous life history of many S. trutta populations has probably also contributed to clade mixing. Based on the data presented here and published data, postglacial colonization of Britain and Ireland most likely involved S. trutta from at least five potential glacial refuges. Probable locations for such refugia were: south of England-western France, east of the Baltic Sea, western Ireland, Celtic Sea and North Sea. Ferox S. trutta, as defined by their longevity, late maturation and piscivory, exhibited a strong association with a particular clade indicating that they share a common ancestor. Current evidence indicates that the Lough Melvin gillaroo S. trutta and sonaghen S. trutta sympatric types diverged prior to colonization of Lough Melvin and, although limited gene flow has occurred since secondary contact, they have remained largely reproductively isolated due to inlet and outlet river spawning segregation. Gillaroo S. trutta may reflect descendents of a previously more widespread lineage that has declined due to habitat alterations particularly affecting outlet rivers. The mosaic-like distribution of mtDNA lineages means that conservation prioritization in Britain and Ireland should be based on the biological characteristics of local populations rather than solely on evolutionary lineages.

Phylogeographic analysis of North American populations of the parasitic herbaceous plant Monotropa hypopitys reveals a complex history of range expansion from multiple late glacial refugia

Aim We carried out a phylogeographic study across the range of the herbaceous plant species Monotropa hypopitys L. in North America to determine whether its current disjunct distribution is due to recolonization from separate eastern and western refugia after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Location North America: Pacific Northwest and north-eastern USA/south-eastern Canada. Methods Palaeodistribution modelling was carried out to determine suitable climatic regions for M. hypopitys at the LGM. We analysed between 155 and 176 individuals from 39 locations spanning the species' entire range in North America. Sequence data were obtained for the chloroplast rps2 gene (n=168) and for the nuclear ITS region (n=158). Individuals were also genotyped for eight microsatellite loci (n=176). Interpolation of diversity values was used to visualize the range-wide distribution of genetic diversity for each of the three marker classes. Minimum spanning networks were constructed showing the relationships between the rps2 and ITS haplotypes, and the geographical distributions of these haplotypes were plotted. The numbers of genetic clusters based on the microsatellite data were estimated using Bayesian clustering approaches. Results The palaeodistribution modelling indicated suitable climate envelopes for M. hypopitys at the LGM in both the Pacific Northwest and south-eastern USA. High levels of genetic diversity and endemic haplotypes were found in Oregon, the Alexander Archipelago, Wisconsin, and in the south-eastern part of the species' distribution range. Main conclusions Our results suggest a complex recolonization history for M. hypopitys in North America, involving persistence in separate eastern and western refugia. A generally high degree of congruence between the different marker classes analysed indicated the presence of multiple refugia, with at least two refugia in each area. In the west, putative refugia were identified in Oregon and the Alexander Archipelago, whereas eastern refugia may have been located in the southern part of the species' current distribution, as well as in the 'Driftless Area'. These findings are in contrast to a previous study on the related species Orthilia secunda, which has a similar disjunct distribution to M. hypopitys, but which appears to have recolonized solely from western refugia. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

International Projects and Cross-Cultural Adjustment of British Expatriates in Middle East: A Qualitative Investigation of Influencing Factors

Increased globalisation within the British AEC (Architectural, Engineering and Construction) sector has increased the need for companies to transfer staff to manage their overseas operations. To be able to perform abroad, expatriates must harmonise themselves to the conditions prevailing in the host country. These include getting accustomed to living, working and interacting with the host country nationals. The process is commonly referred to as 'cross-cultural adjustment'. Various factors influence the process of adjustment. In order to identify these issues, a qualitative study was undertaken, which mainly comprised of comprehensive literature review, individual interviews and focus group discussion with British expatriates working on international AEC assignments in Middle Eastern countries. Through interpretative approach, the current study aims to understand the concept of cross-cultural adjustment of British Expatriates based in Middle East and their influencing factors.

The findings suggest that success of expatriation does not entirely rest on an expatriate's ability but also on organisational support and assistance that expatriates receive prior to and during the assignment. Organisational factors such as selection mechanisms, job design, training, logistical and social support, mentoring, etc., influence various facets of expatriate adjustment. Striking cultural contrasts between British and Arab culture both in work and non work situations also dictate the level of support required by the expatriate, suggesting that relocation to less developed, remote or politically unstable regions, demands additional support and consideration by the parent company. This study is relevant to the AEC companies employing British expatriates, who need to be cognisant of the issues highlighted above to make rational and informed decisions when handling international assignments in the Middle East.

Autism and ABA: The gulf between North America and Europe

Prevalence estimations for Autism Spectrum Disorder have been increasing over the past few years with rates now reported to be at 1:68. Interventions that are based on Applied Behaviour Analysis are significantly related to best outcomes and are widely considered ‘treatment as usual’ in North America. In Europe, this is not the case, instead a rather ill-defined ‘eclectic’ approach is widely promoted and in this paper we discuss some of the roots of this gulf between Europe and North America and correct some of the misconceptions that prevail about Applied Behaviour Analysis in Europe.

Biogeography, macroecology and species’ traits mediate competitive interactions in the order Lagomorpha

1. In addition to abiotic determinants, biotic factors, including competitive, interspecific interactions, limit species’ distributions. Environmental changes in human disturbance, land use and climate are predicted to have widespread impacts on interactions between species, especially in the order Lagomorpha due to the higher latitudes and more extreme environmental conditions they occupy.
2. We reviewed the published literature on interspecific interactions in the order Lagomorpha, and compared the biogeography, macroecology, phylogeny and traits of species known to interact with those of species with no reported interactions, to investigate how projected future environmental change may affect interactions and potentially alter species’ distributions.
3. Thirty-three lagomorph species have competitive interactions reported in the literature; the majority involve hares (Lepus sp.) or the eastern cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus). Key regions for interactions are located between 30-50°N of the Equator, and include eastern Asia (southern Russia on the border of Mongolia) and North America (north western USA).
4. Closely related, large-bodied, similarly sized species occurring in regions of human-modified, typically agricultural landscapes, or at high elevations are significantly more likely to have reported competitive interactions than other lagomorph species.
5. We identify species’ traits associated with competitive interactions, and highlight some potential impacts that future environmental change may have on interspecific interactions. Our approach using bibliometric and biological data is widely applicable, and with relatively straightforward methodologies, can provide insights into interactions between species.
6. Our results have implications for predicting species’ responses to global change, and we advise that capturing, parameterizing and incorporating interspecific interactions into analyses (for example, species distribution modelling) may be more important than suggested by the literature.

Parents’ and young people’s involvement in designing a trial of ventilator weaning

Consulting with users is considered best practice and is highly recommended in designing new trials. As part of our feasibility work, we undertook a consultation exercise with parents, ex-patients and young people prior to designing a trial of protocol-based ventilator weaning. Our aims were to (1) ascertain views on the relevance and importance of the trial; (2) determine the important parent/patient outcome measures; and (3) ascertain views on informed consent in a cluster randomized controlled trial. We conducted audio-recorded face-to-face, telephone and focus group interviews with parents and young people. Data were content analysed to generate information to address our specific consultation objectives. The setting was the north-western region of England. A total of 16 participants were interviewed: 2 parents of paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) survivors; 1 PICU survivor; and 13 young people from the former Medicines for Children Research Network. The trial objectives were deemed important and relevant, and participants considered the most important outcome measure to be the length of time on ventilation. Parents and young people did not consider written informed consent to be a necessary requirement in the context of this trial, rather awareness of unit participation in the trial was important with the opportunity of opting out of data collection. This consultation provided useful, pragmatic insights to inform trial design. We encountered significant challenges in recruiting parents and young people for this consultation exercise, and novel recruitment methods need to be considered for future work in this field. Patient and public involvement is essential to ensure that future trials answer parent-relevant questions and have meaningful outcome measures, as well as involving parents and young people in the general development of health care services.