Turing's menagerie:Talking lions, virtual bats, electric sheep and analogical peacocks: Common ground and common interest are necessary components of engagement

This theoretical paper attempts to define some of the key components and challenges required to create embodied conversational agents that can be genuinely interesting conversational partners. Wittgenstein's argument concerning talking lions emphasizes the importance of having a shared common ground as a basis for conversational interactions. Virtual bats suggests that-for some people at least-it is important that there be a feeling of authenticity concerning a subjectively experiencing entity that can convey what it is like to be that entity. Electric sheep reminds us of the importance of empathy in human conversational interaction and that we should provide a full communicative repertoire of both verbal and non-verbal components if we are to create genuinely engaging interactions. Also we may be making the task more difficult rather than easy if we leave out non-verbal aspects of communication. Finally, analogical peacocks highlights the importance of between minds alignment and establishes a longer term goal of being interesting, creative, and humorous if an embodied conversational agent is to be truly an engaging conversational partner. Some potential directions and solutions to addressing these issues are suggested.

Guiding contact by coupling the taus of gaps

Animals control contact with surfaces when locomoting, catching prey, etc. This requires sensorily guiding the rate of closure of gaps between effecters such as the hands, feet or jaws and destinations such as a ball, the ground and a prey. Control is generally rapid, reliable and robust, even with small nervous systems: the sensorimotor processes are therefore probably rather simple. We tested a hypothesis, based on general tau theory, that closing two gaps simultaneously, as required in many actions, might be achieved simply by keeping the taus of the gaps coupled in constant ratio. tau of a changing gap is defined as the time-to-closure of the gap at the current closure-rate. General tau theory shows that tau of a gap could, in principle, be directly sensed without needing to sense either the gap size or its rate of closure. In our experiment, subjects moved an effector (computer cursor) to a destination zone indicated on the computer monitor, to stop in the zone just as a moving target cursor reached it. The results indicated the subjects achieved the task by keeping tau of the gap between effector and target coupled to tau of the gap between the effector and the destination zone. Evidence of tau -coupling has also been found, for example, in bats guiding landing using echolocation. Thus, it appears that a sensorimotor process used by different species for coordinating the closure of two or more gaps between effecters and destinations entails constantly sensing the taus of the gaps and moving so as to keep the taus coupled in constant ratio.

Development and characterization of 11 polymorphic compound tetranucleotide microsatellite loci for the Leisler's bat, Nyctalus leisleri (Vespertilionidae, Chiroptera)

Eleven polymorphic microsatellite marker loci were developed from a Leisler's bat (Nyctalus leisleri) genomic enriched library. Assessment of the usefulness of these markers for population genetics studies of Leisler's bats was carried out by screening 100 specimens sampled from eight locations in Ireland and two in Northeastern France. Both moderately and highly polymorphic marker loci were identified. Five to 28 alleles were found to be segregating per locus with observed heterozygosities values ranging from 28.4 to 94%. Initial evaluation indicates that these microsatellites will be useful for genetic based studies aiming, for instance, at parentage and population structure of Leisler's bats.

Indicators of the impact of climate change on migratory species

The Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals adopted a Resolution in 2005 recognising the impacts of climate change on migratory species. It called on Contracting Parties to undertake more research to improve our understanding of these impacts and to implement adaptation measures to reduce foreseeable adverse effects. Given the large diversity of taxa and species affected by climate change, it is impossible to monitor all species and effects thereof. However, it is likely that many of the key ecological and physical processes through which climate change may impact wildlife could be monitored using a suite of indicators, each comprising parameters of species/populations or groups of species as proxies for wider assemblages, habitats and ecosystems. Herein, we identify a suite of 17 indicators whose attributes could reveal negative impacts of climate change on the global status of migratory species: 4 for birds, 4 for marine mammals, 2 for sea turtles, 1 for fish, 3 for land mammals and 3 for bats. A few of these indicators would be relatively straightforward to develop, but most would require additional data collation, and in many cases methodological development. Choosing and developing indicators of the impacts of climate change on migratory species is a challenge, particularly with endangered species, which are subject to many other pressures. To identify and implement conservation measures for these species, indicators must account for the full ensemble of pressures, and link to a system of alerts and triggers for action.

A nocturnal mammal, the greater mouse-eared bat, calibrates a magnetic compass by the sun

Recent evidence suggests that bats can detect the geomagnetic field, but the way in which this is used by them for navigation to a home roost remains unresolved. The geomagnetic field may be used by animals both to indicate direction and to locate position. In birds, directional information appears to be derived from an interaction of the magnetic field with either the sun or the stars, with some evidence suggesting that sunset/sunrise provides the primary directional reference by which a magnetic compass is calibrated daily. We demonstrate that homing greater mouse-eared bats (Myotis myotis) calibrate a magnetic compass with sunset cues by testing their homing response after exposure to an altered magnetic field at and after sunset. Magnetic manipulation at sunset resulted in a counterclockwise shift in orientation compared with controls, consistent with sunset calibration of the magnetic field, whereas magnetic manipulation after sunset resulted in no change in orientation. Unlike in birds, however, the pattern of polarization was not necessary for the calibration. For animals that occupy ecological niches where the sunset is rarely observed, this is a surprising finding. Yet it may indicate the primacy of the sun as an absolute geographical reference not only for birds but also within other vertebrate taxa.

The effect of familiarity on echolocation in the megachiropteran bat Rousettus aegyptiacus

Much is known about the way bats adjust their echolocation behaviour in response to environmental structure or to locate insect prey. By contrast, little is known about how echolocation calls are modulated in response to familiarity of the environment and objects within it. Here we show that the echolocating Megachiropteran bat Rousettus aegyptiacus produces echolocation signals at the same rate whether an obstacle is predictable or unpredictable in location, but that it has a reduced rate of echolocation signal production in a familiar environment with no obstacle present. This suggests that signal production is reduced in a familiar environment absent of 'clutter' but that probing the environment for maximum information is more important for this species than minimizing any cost of probing the environment in a cluttered space.

Echolocation signal structure in the Megachiropteran bat Rousettus aegyptiacus Geoffroy 1810

Rousettus aegyptiacus Geoffroy 1810 is a member of the only genus of Megachiropteran bats to use vocal echolocation, but the structure of its brief, click-like signal is poorly described. Although thought to have a simple echolocation system compared to that of Microchiroptera, R. aegyptiacus is capable of good obstacle avoidance using its impulse sonar. The energy content of the signal was at least an order of magnitude smaller than in Microchiropteran bats and dolphins (approximately 4 X 10(-8) J m(-2)). Measurement of the duration, amplitude and peak frequency demonstrate that the signals of this animal are broadly similar in structure and duration to those of dolphins. Gabor functions were used to model signals and to estimate signal parameters, and the quality of the Gabor function fit to the early part of the signal demonstrates that the echolocation signals of R. aegyptiacus match the minimum spectral spread for their duration and amplitude and are thus well matched to its best hearing sensitivity. However, the low energy content of the signals and short duration should make returning echoes difficult to detect. The performance of R. aegyptincus in obstacle avoidance experiments using echolocation therefore remains something of a conundrum.

Kinship, parentage and temporal stability in nursery colonies of Leisler’s bat (Nyctalus leisleri)

Levels of genetic relatedness within bat colonies are often unknown, and consequently the reasons for group formation and social organization are unclear. The Leisler's bat (Nyctalus leisleri), like most temperate bat species, forms nursery colonies in summer. We used microsatellite markers to examine identity and to attempt to estimate relatedness among females within a nursery colony, over 2 consecutive years, to ascertain whether females show kinship and natal philopatry, testing the hypothesis that this is the basis of colony formation. Parentage and relatedness of young born within a colony was assessed to investigate mating patterns via male reproductive skew and whether males achieve mating success within their natal colony. While there was evidence for female philopatry, levels of genetic relatedness within colonies were low. This suggests that kinship is not a major determinant in group formation, as roosts also comprise a large number of distant relatives or non-kin. Roost switching and gene flow are likely to be high. Both sexes reproduced in their first year, whereas males appear to be the more dispersive sex. We argue that the physical environment as well as information sharing provided by communal roosting are likely to be important factors for the formation of these large natal colonies in N. leisleri and possibly other lineages of bats. © 2012 The Author.

Emergence time and foraging activity in Pallas' mastiff bat, Molossus molossus (Chiroptera: Molossidae) in relation to sunset/sunrise and phase of the moon

The decision on when to emerge from the safety of a roost and forage for prey is thought to be a result of the trade off between peak insect abundance and predation pressure for bats. In this study we show that the velvety free-tailed bat Molossus molossus emerges just after sunset and just before sunrise for very short foraging bouts (average 82.2 min foraging per night). Contrary to previous studies, bats remain inactive in their roost between activity patterns. Activity was measured over two complete lunar cycles and there was no indication that phase of the moon had an influence on emergence time or the numbers of bats that emerged from the roost. This data suggests that M. molossus represents an example of an aerial hawking bat whose foraging behaviour is in fact adapted to the compromise between the need to exploit highest prey availability and the need to avoid predation.

Prey field switching based on preferential behaviour can induce Lévy flights

Using the foraging movements of an insectivorous bat, Myotis mystacinus, we describe temporal switching of foraging behaviour in response to resource availability. These observations conform to predictions of optimized search under the Lévy flight paradigm. However, we suggest that this occurs as a result of a preference behaviour and knowledge of resource distribution. Preferential behaviour and knowledge of a familiar area generate distinct movement patterns as resource availability changes on short temporal scales. The behavioural response of predators to changes in prey fields can elicit different functional responses, which are considered to be central in the development of stable predator-prey communities. Recognizing how the foraging movements of an animal relate to environmental conditions also elucidates the evolution of optimized search and the prevalence of discrete strategies in natural systems. Applying techniques that use changes in the frequency distribution of movements facilitates exploration of the processes that underpin behavioural changes. © 2012 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.

The spatial ecology of the whiskered bat (Myotis mystacinus) at the western extreme of its range provides evidence of regional adaptation

Although widespread, the ecology of the whiskered bat, Myotis mystacinus in Europe remains poorly understood. Ireland is positioned at the most western extreme of this species' range. To ascertain the ecology of M. mystacinus at its geographic range extreme, the roosting behaviour, home range and habitat use of females in a maternity roost in Ireland was investigated by radio-tracking. M. mystacinus were active in a diversity of habitats: namely, mixed woodland, riparian vegetation, arable land and rough grassland. However, only mixed woodland and riparian habitats were selected as core foraging areas. This is in contrast to a previous study from Britain where only pasture was utilised but is in agreement with data from Slovakia, where woodland was also selected, whilst riparian areas were also utilised by this species in Germany. A high degree of overlap in the foraging areas of individuals was observed. A total of seven roosts were utilised by tracked bats and roost switching behaviour was observed. We discuss our contrasting results in respect to range limitations, regional variability in landscape structure and the composition of bat communities. The present results have implications for the conservation of M. mystacinus within Ireland and other parts of its range, highlighting the need for range wide ecological studies. Regional variability in the ecology of bats related to landscape factors is an important consideration for bat conservation and therefore must be incorporated into future management plans. (C) 2012 Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Saugetierkunde. Published by Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Behavioural context of multi-scale species distribution models assessed by radio-tracking

Incorporating ecological processes and animal behaviour into Species Distribution Models (SDMs) is difficult. In species with a central resting or breeding place, there can be conflict between the environmental requirements of the 'central place' and foraging habitat. We apply a multi-scale SDM to examine habitat trade-offs between the central place, roost sites, and foraging habitat in . Myotis nattereri. We validate these derived associations using habitat selection from behavioural observations of radio-tracked bats. A Generalised Linear Model (GLM) of roost occurrence using land cover variables with mixed spatial scales indicated roost occurrence was positively associated with woodland on a fine scale and pasture on a broad scale. Habitat selection of radio-tracked bats mirrored the SDM with bats selecting for woodland in the immediate vicinity of individual roosts but avoiding this habitat in foraging areas, whilst pasture was significantly positively selected for in foraging areas. Using habitat selection derived from radio-tracking enables a multi-scale SDM to be interpreted in a behavioural context. We suggest that the multi-scale SDM of . M. nattereri describes a trade-off between the central place and foraging habitat. Multi-scale methods provide a greater understanding of the ecological processes which determine where species occur and allow integration of behavioural processes into SDMs. The findings have implications when assessing the resource use of a species at a single point in time. Doing so could lead to misinterpretation of habitat requirements as these can change within a short time period depending on specific behaviour, particularly if detectability changes depending on behaviour. © 2011 Gesellschaft für ökologie.

A functional role of the sky’s polarization pattern for orientation in the greater mouse-eared bat

Animals can call on a multitude of sensory information to orient and navigate. In some cases they may calibrate these cues against each other to establish the most accurate information available. One such cue is the pattern of polarized light in the sky, which may be used as a geographical reference to calibrate other cues in the compass mechanism. Mammals, however, have not been shown to use this cue, even though they do calibrate a magnetic compass with sunset. In this paper we demonstrate that bats use polarization cues at sunset to calibrate a magnetic compass, subsequently used for orientation during a homing experiment. It is thus the only mammal known so far to make use of the polarization pattern in the sky. This is an intriguing finding as currently there is no clear understanding of how this cue is perceived in this taxon and has general implications for the sensory biology of mammalian vision.

A rapid PCR-based assay for identification of cryptic Myotis spp. (M. mystacinus, M. brandtii and M. alcathoe)

The development of a quick PCR-based method to distinguish European cryptic Myotis spp., Myotis mystacinus, Myotis brandtii and Myotis alcathoe is described. Primers were designed around species-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP's) in the ND1 mitochondrial gene, and a pair of control primers was designed in the 12S mitochondrial gene. A multiplex of seven primer combinations produces clear species-specific bands using gel electrophoresis. Robustness of the method was tested on 33 M. mystacinus, 16 M. brandtii and 15 M. alcathoe samples from across the European range of these species. The method worked well on faecal samples collected from maternity roosts of M. mystacinus. The test is intended to aid collection of data on these species through a rapid and easy identification method with the ability to use DNA obtained from a range of sources including faecal matter.

Étude des impacts écologiques du dynamisme spatio-temporel des habitats naturels sur la faune menacée du Complexe Zones Humides Mahavavy-Kinkony, Madagascar.

This study of the Mahavavy-Kinkony Wetland Complex (MKWC) assesses the impacts of habitat change on the resident globally threatened fauna. Located in Boeny Region, northwest Madagascar, the Complex encompasses a range of habitats including freshwater lakes, rivers, marshes, mangrove forests, and deciduous forest. Spatial modelling and analysis tools were used to (i) identify the important habitats for selected, threatened fauna, (ii) assess their change from 1950 to 2005, (iii) detect the causes of change, (iv) simulate changes to 2050 and (v) evaluate the impacts of change. The approach for prioritising potential habitats for threatened species used ecological science techniques assisted by the decision support software Marxan. Nineteen species were analysed: nine birds, three primates, three fish, three bats and one reptile. Based on knowledge of local land use, supervised classification of Landsat images from 2005 was used to classify the land use of the Complex. Simulations of land use change to 2050 were carried out based on the Land Change Modeler module in Idrisi Andes with the neural network algorithm. Changes in land use at site level have occurred over time but they are not significant. However, reductions in the extent of reed marshes at Lake Kinkony and forests at Tsiombikibo and Marofandroboka directly threaten the species that depend on these habitats. Long term change monitoring is recommended for the Mahavavy Delta, in order to evaluate the predictions through time. The future change of Andohaomby forest is of great concern and conservation actions are recommended as a high priority. Abnormal physicochemical properties were detected in lake Kinkony due to erosion of the four watersheds to the south, therefore an anti-erosion management plan is required for these watersheds. Among the species of global conservation concern, Sakalava rail (Amaurornis olivieri), Crowned sifaka (Propithecus coronatus) and dambabe (Paretroplus dambabe) are estimated the most affected, but at the site level Decken’s sifaka (Propithecus deckeni), kotsovato (Paretroplus kieneri) and Madagascan big-headed turtle (Erymnochelys madagascariensis) are also threatened. Local enforcement of national legislation on hunting means that MKWC is among the sites where the flying fox (Pteropus rufus) and Madagascan rousette (Rousettus madagascariensis) are well protected. Ecological restoration, ecological research and actions to reduce anthropogenic pressures are recommended.