Enchytraeid worms retard polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation in a coniferous forest soil

In this study the fate of naphthalene, fluorene and pyrene were investigated in the presence and absence of enchytraeid worms. Microcosms were used, which enabled the full fate of ¹⁴C-labelled PAHs to be followed. Between 60 and 70% of naphthalene was either mineralised or volatilised, whereas over 90% of the fluorene and pyrene was retained within the soil. Mineralisation and volatilisation of naphthalene was lower in the presence of enchytraeid worms. The hypothesis that microbial mineralisation of naphthalene was limited by enchytraeids because they reduce nutrient availability, and hence limit microbial carbon turnover in these nutrient poor soils, was tested. Ammonia concentrations increased and phosphorus concentrations decreased in all microcosms over the 56 d experimental period. The soil nutrient chemistry was only altered slightly by enchytraeid worms, and did not appear to be the cause of retardation of naphthalene mineralisation. The results suggest that microbial availability and volatilisation of naphthalene is altered as it passes through enchytraeid worms due to organic material encapsulation. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Degradation of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) fluorene is retarded in a Scots pine ectomycorrhizosphere

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are an important class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment and accumulate in forest soils. These soils are often dominated by ectomycorrhizal (EcM) roots, but little is known about how EcM fungi degrade PAHs, or the overall effect of field colonized EcM roots on the fate of PAHs. The ability of eight EcM fungi to degrade PAHs in liquid culture spiked with ¹⁴C labelled PAHs was investigated. Microcosms were used to determine the impact of naturally colonized mycorrhizal pine seedlings on PAH mineralization and volatilization. Only two EcM fungi (Thelephora terrestris and Laccaria laccata) degraded at least one PAH and none were able to mineralize the PAHs in pure culture. Where degradation occurred, the compounds were only mono-oxygenated. EcM pine seedlings did not alter naphthalene mineralization or volatilization but retarded fluorene mineralization by 35% compared with unplanted, ectomycorrhizosphere soil inoculated, microcosms. The EcM fungi possessed limited PAH degrading abilities, which may explain why EcM dominated microcosms retarded fluorene mineralization. This observation is considered in relation to the 'Gadgil-effect', where retarded litter decomposition has been observed in the presence of EcM roots. © New Phytologist (2004).

Interactions between ectomycorrhizal fungi and soil saprotrophs:Implications for decomposition of organic matter in soils and degradation of organic pollutants in the rhizosphere

Ectomycorrhizal fungi and saprotrophic microorganisms coexist and interact in the mycorrhizosphere. We review what is known regarding these interactions and how they may influence processes such as ectomycorrhiza formation, mycelial growth, and the dynamics of carbon movement to and within the rhizosphere. Particular emphasis is placed on the potential importance of interactions in decomposition of soil organic matter and degradation of persistant organic pollutants in soil. While our knowledge is currently fairly limited, it seems likely that interactions have profound effects on mycorrhizosphere processes. More extensive research is warranted to provide novel insights into mycorrhizosphere ecology and to explore the potential for manipulating the ectomycorrhizosphere environment for biotechnological purposes.

Degradation of 4-fluorobiphenyl by mycorrhizal fungi as determined by 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and 14C radiolabelling analysis

The pathways of biotransformation of 4-fluorobiphenyl (4FBP) by the ectomycorrhizal fungus Tylospora fibrilosa and several other mycorrhizal fungi were investigated by using ¹⁹F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in combination with ¹⁴C radioisotope-detected high-performance liquid chromatography (¹⁴C- HPLC). Under the conditions used in this study T. fibrillosa and some other species degraded 4FBP. ¹⁴C-HPLC profiles indicated that there were four major biotransformation products, whereas ¹⁹F NMR showed that there were six major fluorine-containing products. We confirmed that 4-fluorobiphen-4'-ol and 4-fluorobiphen-3'-ol were two of the major products formed, but no other products were conclusively identified. There was no evidence for the expected biotransformation pathway (namely, meta cleavage of the less halogenated ring), as none of the expected products of this route were found. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing intermediates formed during mycorrhizal degradation of halogenated biphenyls.

Assessment of toxicological interactions of benzene and its primary degradation products (catechol and phenol) using a lux-modified bacterial bioassay

A bacterial bioassay has been developed to assess the relative toxicities of xenobiotics commonly found in contaminated soils, rivers, waters, and ground waters. The assay utilized decline in luminescence of lux- marked Pseudomonas fluorescens on exposure to xenobiotics. Pseudomonas fluorescens is a common bacterium in the terrestrial environment, providing environmental relevance to soil, river, and ground water systems. Three principal environmental contaminants associated with benzene degradation were exposed to the luminescence-marked bacterial biosensor to assess their toxicity individually and in combination. Median effective concentration (EC50) values for decline in luminescence were determined for benzene, catechol, and phenol and were found to be 39.9, 0.77, and 458.6 mg/L, respectively. Catechol, a fungal and bacterial metabolite of benzene, was found to be significantly more toxic to the biosensor than was the parent compound benzene, showing that products of xenobiotic biodegradation may be more toxic than the parent compounds. Combinations of parent compounds and metabolites were found to be significantly more toxic to the bioassay than were the individual compounds themselves. Development of this bioassay has provided a rapid screening system suitable for assessing the toxicity of xenobiotics commonly found in contaminated soil, river, and ground-water environments. The assay can be utilized over a wide pH range and is therefore more applicable to such environmental systems than bioluminescence-based bioassays that utilize marine organisms and can only be applied over a limited pH and salinity range.

Irradiation of bioresorbable biomaterials for controlled surface degradation

Bioresorbable polymers increasingly are the materials of choice for implantable orthopaedic fixation devices. Controlled degradation of these polymers is vital for preservation of mechanical properties during tissue repair and controlled release of incorporated agents such as osteoconductive or anti-microbial additives. The work outlined in this paper investigates the use of low energy electron beam irradiation to surface modify polyhydroxyacid samples incorporating beta tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP). This work uniquely demonstrates that surface modification of bioresorbable polymers through electron beam irradiation allows for the early release of incorporated agents such as bioactive additives. Samples were e-beam irradiated at an energy of 125 keV and doses of either 150 kGy or 500 kGy. Irradiated and non-irradiated samples were degraded in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), to simulate bioresorption, followed by characterisation. The results show that low energy e-beam irradiation enhances surface hydrolytic degradation in comparison to bulk and furthermore allows for earlier release of incorporated calcium via dissolution into the surrounding medium.

Finite element modelling of FRP-to-concrete bond behaviour using the concrete damage plasticity theory combined with a plastic degradation model

The technique of externally bonding fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites has been becoming popular worldwide for retrofitting existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures. A major failure mode in such strengthened structures is the debonding of FRP from the concrete substrate. The bond behaviour between FRP and concrete thus plays a crucial role in these structures. The FRP-to-concrete bond behaviour has been extensively investigated experimentally, commonly using the pull-off test of FRP-to-concrete bonded joint. Comparatively, much less research has been concerned with the numerical simulation of this bond behaviour, chiefly due to difficulties in accurately modelling the complex behaviour of concrete. This paper proposes a robust finite element (FE) model for simulating the bond behaviour in the entire loading process in the pull-off test. A concrete damage plasticity model based on the plastic degradation theory is proposed to overcome the weakness of the elastic degradation theory which has been commonly adopted in previous studies. The model produces results in very close agreement with test data. © Tsinghua University Press, Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011.

Dual interfacial modifications of hierarchically structured iodine-doped ZnO photoanodes for high-efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells

A nanocomposite porous electrode structure consisting of hierarchical iodine-doped zinc oxide (I-ZnO) aggregates combined with the two simple solution-processed interfacial modifications i.e. a ZnO compact layer (CL) and a TiO2 protective layer (PL) has been developed in order to understand electron transport and recombination in the photoanode matrix, together with boosting the conversion efficiency of I-ZnO based dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs). Electrochemical impedance spectra demonstrate that ZnO CL pre-treatment and TiO2 PL post-treatment synergistically reduce charge-transfer resistance and suppress electron recombination. Furthermore, the electron lifetime in two combined modifications of IZnO + CL + PL photoelectrode is the longest in comparison with the other three photoelectrodes. As a consequence, the overall conversion efficiency of I-ZnO + CL + PL DSC is significantly enhanced to 6.79%, with a 36% enhancement compared with unmodified I-ZnO DSC. Moreover, the stability of I-ZnO + CL + PL cell is improved as compared to I-ZnO one. The mechanism of electron transfer and recombination upon the introduction of ZnO CL and TiO2 PL is also proposed in this work.

Dengue Virus Inhibition of Autophagic Flux and Dependency of Viral Replication on Proteasomal Degradation of the Autophagy Receptor p62

Autophagic flux involves formation of autophagosomes and their degradation by lysosomes. Autophagy can either promote or restrict viral replication. In the case of Dengue virus (DENV) several studies report that autophagy supports the viral replication cycle, and describe an increase of autophagic vesicles (AVs) following infection. However, it is unknown how autophagic flux is altered to result in increased AVs. To address this question, and gain insight into the role of autophagy during DENV infection, we established an unbiased, image-based flow cytometry approach to quantify autophagic flux under normal growth conditions and in response to activation by nutrient deprivation or the mTOR inhibitor Torin1. We found that DENV induced an initial activation of autophagic flux, followed by inhibition of general and specific autophagy. Early after infection, basal and activated autophagic flux was enhanced. However, during established replication, basal and Torin1-activated autophagic flux was blocked, while autophagic flux activated by nutrient deprivation was reduced, indicating a block to AV formation and reduced AV degradation capacity. During late infection AV levels increased as a result of inefficient fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes. Additionally, endo-lysosomal trafficking was suppressed, while lysosomal activities were increased. We further determined that DENV infection progressively reduced levels of the autophagy receptor SQSTM1/p62 via proteasomal degradation. Importantly, stable over-expression of p62 significantly suppressed DENV replication suggesting a novel role for p62 as viral restriction factor. Overall our findings indicate that in the course of DENV infection, autophagy shifts from a supporting to an anti-viral role, which is countered by DENV.

IMPORTANCE: Autophagic flux is a dynamic process starting with the formation of autophagosomes and ending with their degradation after fusion with lysosomes. Autophagy impacts the replication cycle of many viruses. However, thus far the dynamics of autophagy in case of Dengue virus (DENV) infections has not been systematically quantified. Therefore, we employed high-content, imaging-based flow cytometry to quantify autophagic flux and endo-lysosomal trafficking in response to DENV infection. We report that DENV induced an initial activation of autophagic flux, followed by inhibition of general and specific autophagy. Further, lysosomal activity was increased, but endo-lysosomal trafficking was suppressed confirming the block of autophagic flux. Importantly, we provide evidence that p62, an autophagy receptor, restrict DENV replication and was specifically depleted in DENV-infected cells via increased proteasomal degradation. These results suggest that during DENV infection autophagy shifts from a pro- to an antiviral cellular process, which is counteracted by the virus.

Fate of organo-mineral particles in streams: Microbial degradation by streamwater & biofilm assemblages

Inland waters are of global biogeochemical importance. They receive carbon inputs of ~ 4.8 Pg C/ y of which, 12 % is buried, 18 % transported to the oceans, and 70 % supports aquatic secondary production. However, the mechanisms that determine the fate of organic matter (OM) in these systems are poorly defined. One aspect of this is the formation of organo-mineral complexes in aquatic systems and their potential as a route for OM transport and burial vs. their use as carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) sources within aquatic systems. Organo-mineral particles form by sorption of dissolved OM to freshly eroded mineral surfaces and may contribute to ecosystem-scale particulate OM fluxes. We experimentally tested the availability of mineral-sorbed OM as a C & N source for streamwater microbial assemblages and streambed biofilms. Organo-mineral particles were constructed in vitro by sorption of ¹³C:¹⁵N-labelled amino acids to hydrated kaolin particles, and microbial degradation of these particles compared with equivalent doses of ¹³C:¹⁵N-labelled free amino acids. Experiments were conducted in 120 ml mesocosms over 7 days using biofilms and water sampled from the Oberer Seebach stream (Austria). Each incubation experienced a 16:8 light:dark regime, with metabolism monitored via changes in oxygen concentrations between photoperiods. The relative fate of the organo-mineral particles was quantified by tracing the mineralization of the ¹³C and ¹⁵N labels and their incorporation into microbial biomass. Here we present the initial results of ¹³C-label mineralization, incorporation and retention within dissolved organic carbon pool. The results indicate that 514 (± 219) μmol/ mmol of the ¹³:¹⁵N labeled free amino acids were mineralized over the 7-day incubations. By contrast, 186 (± 97) μmol/ mmol of the mineral-sorbed amino acids were mineralized over a similar period. Thus, organo-mineral complexation reduced amino acid mineralization by ~ 60 %, with no differences observed between the streamwater and biofilm assemblages. Throughout the incubations, biofilms were observed to leach dissolved organic carbon (DOC). However, within the streamwater assemblage the presence of both organo-mineral particles and kaolin particles was associated with significant DOC removal (-1.7 % and -7.5 % respectively). Consequently, the study demonstrates that mineral and organo-mineral particles can limit the availability of DOC in aquatic systems, providing nucleation sites for flocculation and fresh mineral surfaces, which facilitate OM-sorption. The formation of these organo-mineral particles subsequently restricts microbial OM degradation, potentially altering the transport and facilitating the burial of OM within streams.

Design, synthesis and validation of an inhibitor of CGRP degradation

Introduction: In addition to their afferent role in detection and signalling noxious stimuli, neuropeptide-containing sensory nerves may initiate and maintain chronic inflammation in diseases such as periodontitis by an efferent process known as neurogenic inflammation. Neuropeptides are susceptible to cleavage by peptidases, and therefore, the exact location and level of expression of peptidases are major determinants of neuropeptide action. Previous studies in our laboratory showed that enzyme components of gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) from periodontitis sites selectively inactivated the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), known to have a role in inhibiting osteoclastic bone resorption. Objectives: The aim of this study was to design and synthesise a specific inhibitor to prevent the degradation of CGRP by components of GCF. Methods: A hydroxamate-based inhibitor with a biotinylated tag was designed to ensure selectivity for CGRP and ease of use for future purification strategies. The biotinylated peptide hydroxamate contained the P1-P4 amino acid sequence of the potential CGRP cleavage site and was synthesised by solid-phase methods using standard Fmoc chemistry. Inhibition of CGRP metabolism by GCF was determined by MALDI-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) using pooled GCF samples from periodontitis patients as a crude source of the CGRP-degrading enzyme. Results: MALDI-MS analysis of CGRP degradation showed almost complete inhibition in the presence of the biotinylated inhibitor. Our results showed that the rate-limiting step in the cleavage of CGRP is endopeptidase cleavage, followed by carboxypeptidase attack. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that the enzyme component of GCF responsible for the degradation of CGRP can be inhibited by a biotinylated hydroxamate modelled on a potential endopeptidase cleavage site. The biotin tag on the inhibitor will facilitate our future purification of the CGRP-cleavage enzyme using a streptavidin-agarose column.

LL-37 Degradation by GCF: A Role for Porphyromonas gingivalis Proteinases?

Background: LL-37, composed of 37 amino acid residues, is an innate host defence peptide of the cathelicidin family. It is expressed by neutrophils, monocytes and epithelial cells and exhibits both anti-bacterial and immunomodulatory properties. LL-37 is however prone to proteolytic degradation by proteinases, thus potentially limiting its inherent host defence properties in the inflammatory milieu. Objectives: The present study was designed to determine whether LL-37 was degraded by components of gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) from healthy subjects or those with periodontitis. In addition, we aimed to deduce whether degradation of the peptide was accelerated in GCF samples which were determined to be positive for the periodontopathic bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis. Methods: GCF and bacterial plaque samples, pre- and post non-surgical periodontal treatment, were collected from 4 individual sites in patients presenting with advanced periodontitis. In healthy subjects, GCF samples only were collected. Plaque samples were analysed by QPCR for the presence or absence of P. gingivalis. Pooled GCF samples from healthy sites; periodontitis sites which were P. gingivalis negative (Pg-); or periodontitis sites which were P. gingivalis positive (Pg+), were incubated with synthetic LL-37 for 0 – 180 min. The degradation products were then analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Results: LL-37 was not degraded when incubated with GCF from healthy subjects. In contrast, LL-37 was degraded after 30 min when incubated with Pg- GCF. However degradation of LL-37 was apparent after only 2 min incubation with Pg+ GCF and the parent molecule was almost completely degraded after 30 min. Conclusions: The rapid degradation of LL-37, particularly in Pg+ sites, highlights the limited role which this host defence peptide may play in the presence of biologically active proteinases. It also underscores a potent virulence mechanism of P. gingivalis used to circumvent innate host responses.

Magnitude differences in bioactive compounds, chemical functional groups, fatty acid profiles, nutrient degradation and digestion, molecular structure and metabolic characteristics of protein in newly developed yellow-seeded and black-seeded canola lines.

Recently, new lines of yellow-seeded (CS-Y) and black-seeded canola (CS-B) have been developed with chemical and structural alteration through modern breeding technology. However, no systematic study was found on the bioactive compounds, chemical functional groups, fatty acid profiles, inherent structure, nutrient degradation and absorption, or metabolic characteristics between the newly developed yellow- and black-seeded canola lines. This study aimed to systematically characterize chemical, structural, and nutritional features in these canola lines. The parameters accessed include bioactive compounds and antinutrition factors, chemical functional groups, detailed chemical and nutrient profiles, energy value, nutrient fractions, protein structure, degradation kinetics, intestinal digestion, true intestinal protein supply, and feed milk value. The results showed that the CS-Y line was lower (P ≤ 0.05) in neutral detergent fiber (122 vs 154 g/kg DM), acid detergent fiber (61 vs 99 g/kg DM), lignin (58 vs 77 g/kg DM), nonprotein nitrogen (56 vs 68 g/kg DM), and acid detergent insoluble protein (11 vs 35 g/kg DM) than the CS-B line. There was no difference in fatty acid profiles except C20:1 eicosenoic acid content (omega-9) which was in lower in the CS-Y line (P < 0.05) compared to the CS-B line. The glucosinolate compounds differed (P < 0.05) in terms of 4-pentenyl, phenylethyl, 3-CH3-indolyl, and 3-butenyl glucosinolates (2.9 vs 1.0 μmol/g) between the CS-Y and CS-B lines. For bioactive compounds, total polyphenols tended to be different (6.3 vs 7.2 g/kg DM), but there were no differences in erucic acid and condensed tannins with averages of 0.3 and 3.1 g/kg DM, respectively. When protein was portioned into five subfractions, significant differences were found in PA, PB1 (65 vs 79 g/kg CP), PB2, and PC fractions (10 vs 33 g/kg CP), indicating protein degradation and supply to small intestine differed between two new lines. In terms of protein structure spectral profile, there were no significant differences in functional groups of amides I and II, α helix, and β-sheet structure as well as their ratio between the two new lines, indicating no difference in protein structure makeup and conformation between the two lines. In terms of energy values, there were significant differences in total digestible nutrient (TDN; 149 vs 133 g/kg DM), metabolizable energy (ME; 58 vs 52 MJ/kg DM), and net energy for lactation (NEL; 42 vs 37 MJ/kg DM) between CS-Y and CS-B lines. For in situ rumen degradation kinetics, the two lines differed in soluble fraction (S; 284 vs 341 g/kg CP), potential degradation fraction (D; 672 vs 590 g/kg CP), and effective degraded organic matter (EDOM; 710 vs 684 g/kg OM), but no difference in degradation rate. CS-Y had higher digestibility of rumen bypass protein in the intestine than CS-B (566 vs 446 g/kg of RUP, P < 0.05). Modeling nutrient supply results showed that microbial protein synthesis (MCP; 148 vs 171 g/kg DM) and rumen protein degraded balance (DPB; 108 vs 127 g/kg DM) were lower in the CS-Y line, but there were no differences in total truly digested protein in small intestine (DVE) and feed milk value (FMV) between the two lines. In conclusion, the new yellow line had different nutritional, chemical, and structural features compared to the black line. CS-Y provided better nutrient utilization and availability.