Further evidence for cryptic north-western refugia in Europe? Mitochondrial phylogeography of the sibling species Pipistrellus pipistrellus and Pipistrellus pygmaeus

The geographic ranges of European plants and animals underwent periods of contraction and re-colonisation during the climatic oscillations of the Pleistocene. The southern Mediterranean peninsulas (Iberian, Italian and Balkan) have been considered the most likely refugia for temperate/warm adapted species. Recent studies however have revealed the existence of extra-Mediterranean refugia, including the existence of cryptic north-west European refugia during the Last Glacial Maxima (24-14.6 kyr BP). In this study we elucidated the phylogeographic history of two sibling bat species, Pipistrellus pipistrellus and P. pygmaeus in their western European range. We sequenced the highly variable mtDNA D-loop for 167 samples of P. pipistrellus (n = 99) and P. pygmaeus (n = 68) and combined our data with published sequences from 331 individuals. Using phylogenetic methodologies we assessed their biogeographic history. Our data support a single eastern European origin for populations of P. pygmaeus s.str., yet multiple splits and origins for populations of P. pipistrellus s.str., including evidence for refugia within refugia and potential cryptic refugia in north western Europe and in the Caucasus. This complex pattern in the distribution of mtDNA haplotypes supports a long history for P. pipistrellus s.str. in Europe, and the hypothesis that species with a broad ecological niche may have adapted and survived outside southern peninsula throughout the LGM.

Neolithic farming in north-western Europe: archaeobotanical evidence from Ireland

This paper presents significant new insights into the appearance of agriculture at the north- western edge of Europe, focusing on Neolithic Ireland (4000-2500 cal BC). Previous studies were based upon a limited plant macro-remains dataset, as much of the Irish evidence is unpublished. A research project, 'Cultivating Societies', was implemented to examine the nature, timing and extent of agricultural activity in Neolithic Ireland through collation and analysis of different strands of published and unpublished archaeological and environmental evidence, with a particular focus on plant macro- remains, pollen, settlement and 14C data. Plant macro-remains from a total of 52 excavated sites were collated and analysed, representing the most comprehensive study to date of Neolithic plant remains from this region. Cereals were present at many locations and site types, sometimes in large quantities and most often at sites dating to the earlier Neolithic (3750-3600 cal BC). Emmer wheat was the dominant crop, at least at this time. Other crops included naked and hulled barley, naked wheat, einkorn wheat and flax. Analysis of arable weeds indicates that early plots were not managed under a shifting cultivation regime, which has important implications for understanding Neolithic settlement practices and how communities engaged with landscapes. The variety of crops cultivated in Neolithic Ireland is similar to those in Britain, reflecting a decreasing diversity in crop types as agriculture spread from south-east to north-west Europe.

Skin bradykinin-related peptides (BRPs) and their biosynthetic precusors (kininogens): comparisons between various taxa of Chinese and North American ranid frogs.

Bradykinins and related peptides (BRPs) occur in the defensive skin secretions of many amphibians. Here we report the structures of BRPs and their corresponding biosynthetic precursor cDNAs from the Chinese brown frog, Rana chensinensis, and the North American leopard frog, Lithobates pipiens. R. chensinensis skin contained four transcripts each encoding a different kininogen whose organizations and spectrum of encoded BRPs were similar to those reported for the pickerel frog, Lithobates palustris. In contrast, from L. pipiens, a single skin kininogen was cloned whose structural organization and spectrum of mature BRPs were similar to those reported for the Chinese piebald odorous frog, Huia schmackeri. These data also implied that the endogenous precursor processing proteases in each species pair have identical site-directed specificities, which in part may be dictated by the primary structures of encoded BRPs. Thus the spectra of skin BRPs and the organization of their biosynthetic precursors are not consistent with recent taxonomy. The natural selective pressures that mould the primary structures of amphibian skin secretion peptides are thought to be related to the spectrum of predators encountered within their habitats. Thus similarities and differences in skin bradykinins may be reflective of predator spectra rather than indicative of species relatedness.

The Chinese bamboo leaf odorous frog (Rana (Odorrana) versabilis) and North American Rana frogs share the same families of skin antimicrobial peptides.

The Chinese bamboo leaf odorous frog (Rana (Odorrana) versabilis) and the North American pickerel frog (Rana palustris) occupy different ecological niches on two different continents with no overlap in geographical distribution. R. palustris skin secretions contain a formidable array of antimicrobial peptides including homologs of brevinin-1, esculentin-1, esculentin-2, ranatuerin-2, a temporin and a family of peptides considered of unique structural attributes when isolated, palustrins 1–3. Here we describe the structures of mature peptides and precursors of eight putative antimicrobial peptides from the skin secretion of the Chinese bamboo leaf odorous frog (Rana (Odorrana) versabilis). Each peptide represents a structural homolog of respective peptide families isolated from R. palustris, including two peptides identical in primary structure to palustrin 1c and palustrin 3b. Additionally, two peptides were found to be structural homologs of ranatuerin 2B and ranatuerin 2P from the closely-related North American species, Rana berlandieri (the Rio Grande leopard frog) and Rana pipiens (the Northern leopard frog), respectively. Both palustrins and ranatuerins have hitherto been considered unique to North American ranid frogs. The use of primary structures of amphibian skin antimicrobial peptides is thus questionable as a taxonomic device or alternatively, the micro-evolution and/or ancestry of ranid frogs is more highly complex than previously thought.